Fighting against the odds--Jericho.

Within literary context, then, the Biblical account supports a historical Joshua. But the account of Joshua makes some pretty big claims on how God fought for Israel as they entered and conquered Canaan. So those historical claims should be backed up by historical facts and traditions, should they not? Oh boy, that's another big endeavor, partly because Scripture basically records how the Israelites left no survivors in the cities they conquered. So unless the Canaanite peoples had time to send pleas for help prior to overthrow by the Israelites, the only surviving verbal testimony would be from the Israelites--and who trusts the conqueror's account of a conquest? Well . . . perhaps there is additional evidence to consider.

"The Battle of Jericho" as sung by the Morman Tabernacle Choir

Facts, traditions, and widespread beliefs regarding Joshua's conquest of Canaan:

• Etymology of "Canaan":
• Dictionary.com - from Hebrew "Kena'an" referring to either the land between the Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the Mediterranean, or referring to a grandson of Noah by the same name.
• Merriam Webster's Dictionary - from Gr. "Kanaan", which comes from Heb. "Kena'an" referring to the ancient land of Phoenicia and Palestine.
• Jewish Virtual Library - "The name Canaan first appears in documents from the 15^th century B.C.E. and was variously written: Akkadian: Kinani (m), Kinaḫḫu / i, etc.; Egyptian: Knʿn·w and P -knʿn; Ugaritic: Knʿny ("a Canaanite"); Phoenician and Hebrew: Knʿn. Most scholars connect the name with the Hurrian term kinaḫḫu meaning (reddish) purple. Support for this is found in the similarity between the Greek Φοῖνιξ meaning reddish purple and Φοινίκη meaning Phoenicia. Those who derive the name from the Semitic root kn' consider it either a name for the conchiferous snail which yielded purple dye, or a term for the western nations, because the sun set in the west (see also Astour 1965). Since purple cloth was the chief export of Phoenicia, the term Canaan also appears in the sense of merchant (Isa. 23:8; Zeph. 1:11; Prov. 31:24; et al) [emphasis added]"
• Isaiah 23:8-12, "Who has planned this against Tyre, the bestower of crowns, whose merchants were princes, whose traders were the honored of the earth? The LORD of hosts has planned it, to defile the pride of all beauty, to despise all the honored of the earth . . . The LORD has given a command concerning Canaan to demolish its strongholds. He has said, 'You shall exult no more, O crushed virgin daughter of Sidon. Arise, pass over to Cyprus; even there you will find no rest.'"
• Canaanite Giants:
• Anastasi Papyrus - "Amenmope's chariot is on a narrow mountain pass above a ravine in which some four or five cubit (seven foot) tall Shashu are lurking. The road is rough and tangled with vegetation and the Shashu look dangerous and fierce. Amenmope wrecks his rig and has to cut it loose with a knife from some trees it is tangled up in."
• Wisdom Library - The Egyptian Execration texts tells of "Iy aneq"/"Iy'anaq", which appear to correspond to the Biblical Anakim. The Egyptian texts place curses on these Iy aneq and refer to Ashdod as the "city of the giants"

  
                        From Wikipedia "Shasu" article 

• Shasu - An Egyptian carving of Egyptians beating two Shasu spies depicts the Shasu spies as being greater in stature than the Egyptians. While pharaohs were depicted as greater in stature than their "inferior" subjects (History World), it is odd that enemy foreigners would be shown as greater in stature than Egyptians, unless this reflected reality.
• ABC.net - Ancient Egyptians had an average height of 5.1 ft, which would have been short compared to the 7 ft tall Shashu.
• Jewish Encyclopedia - Jewish people on average are ~5.3 ft in height, which would have been short compared to "short giants" of just 7 ft like the Canaanite Shashu described by the Egyptians.
• Deuteronomy 9:1-3, "[Moses instructing the Israelites about to cross the Jordan into Canaan] 'Hear, O Israel! You are crossing over the Jordan today to go in to dispossess nations greater and mightier than you, great cities fortified to heaven, a people great and tall, the sons of the Anakim, whom you know and of whom you have heard it said, "Who can stand before the sons of Anak?" Know therefore today that it is the LORD your God who is crossing over before you as a consuming fire. He will destroy them and He will subdue them before you, so that you may drive them out and destroy them quickly, just as the LORD has spoken to you.'"
• Conquest of Jericho:

• Jewish Virtual Library - summary of the history of Jericho
• Jewish Magazine - history of Jericho from a Jewish perspective.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site - Tel e-Sultan, or ancient Jericho, is considered both the oldest and the lowest lying town on Earth, resting at 258 m below sea level. In the Middle Bronze Age around 1580 B.C., the Canaanite city-state of Tel e-Sultan and its mud-brick wall at that time were violently destroyed by fire. Evidence of nomadic invasion also exists, but according to the UNESCO summary the nomadic invasion dates one to two centuries prior to the fire. After the fire, Tel e-Sultan remained largely unsettled during the Late Bronze Age, being instead resettled in the later Iron Age.
• Creation.com - article which contains many quotes from archaeologists Garstang, Kenyon, and Pritchard from their excavations at ancient Jericho and Gibeon. Dates given are as follows: Early Bronze Age - third millenium B.C., Middle Bronze Age - 2000-1550 B.C., and Late Bronze Age - 1550-1200 B.C. I do not agree with the dating conclusion regarding the time of Joshua in this article, but the quotes from archaeologists are quite interesting:
• "'Traces of intense fire are plain to see, including reddened masses of brick, cracked stones, charred timber and ashes. Houses alongside the wall were found burnt to the ground, their roofs fallen upon the domestic pottery within'" (Garstang)
• "'On a brick ledge in a corner of this room we found the family provision of dates, barley, oats, olives, an onion and peppercorns, all charred but unmistakable; while a little store of bread, together with a quantity of unbaked dough which had been laid aside to serve as leaven for the morrow’s baking, told plainly the same tale of a people cut off in full activity.'" (Garstang)
• "'One gets used to burnt layers in excavations of this kind, for it was the usual fate of houses and cities to perish by fire; but this was no ordinary burning. The layer of ashes was so thick and the signs of intense heat so vivid, that it gave the impression of having been contrived, that fuel had been added to the fire.'" (Garstang)
• "We have nowhere been able to prove the survival of the walls of the Late Bronze Age, that is to say, of the period of Joshua. This is at variance with Professor Garstang’s conclusions. He ascribed two of the lines of walls which encircle the summit to the Late Bronze Age. But everywhere that we examined them it was clear that they must belong to the Early Bronze.' Kenyon concluded that an earthquake had brought the walls down. 'The face of the wall can be seen fallen outwards from the stone foundations.'" (Kenyon)
• "'As our detailed knowledge of Palestinian archaeology has gradually increased over the past thirty years or so, it has become apparent that there was a very sharp break between the Early Bronze Age of the third millenium and the Middle Bronze Age of the first half of the second. Common everyday pots are the most sensitive barometer of a drastic change in population. There is virtually no continuity in pottery between the two periods'" (Kenyon)
• "'These relics of the Middle Bronze I people seem to indicate a fresh migration into the town of a nomadic people who brought with them an entirely new tradition in pottery forms and new customs in burial practices. They may have come into Palestine from the desert at the crossing of the Jordan near Jericho and may then have pushed on to settle eventually at places such as Gibeon, Tell el-Ajjul and Lachish, where tombs of this distinctive type have been found.'" (Pritchard)
• Concerning the invading "nomads": "'Since there is this interval before houses appear, they must have lived in tents or very slight structures, thus providing clear evidence of their nomadic origin. Though they lived on the tell [Tel e-Sultan], they were not really interested in it as a town. Their occupation spread right down the slopes, and they never built themselves a town wall.'" (Kenyon)
• New York Times - Archaeologist Dr. Bryant Wood dated this great burning of Jericho to the Late Bronze Age, or ~1400 BC, contradicting Kathleen Kenyon's earlier work.
• "A study of ceramic remnants, royal scarabs, carbon-14 dating, seismic activity in the region and even some ruins of tumbled walls produced what is being called impressive evidence that the fortified city was destroyed in the Late Bronze Age, about 1400 B.C. . . . The prevailing view among scholars has been that the city was destroyed some 150 years earlier . . . [as in the UNESCO write-up]"
• "A three-foot layer of ash, containing many pottery fragments and mud bricks from a wall, was found at the site, well preserved because it was sealed by sediments that accumulated over the years the destroyed city lay unoccupied. The charred fragments have been dated at 1410 B.C., plus or minus 40 years [So taking 1410 B.C. compared to UNESCO's 1580 B.C. the median date is ~1495 B.C.--this approximation compares pretty well with early historians dating of the Exodus at 1550 B.C. as related in my blog post "A Nation Redeemed. (Part I)" on July 10th, 2016, remembering that the Exodus was followed by 40 years wandering in the wilderness]. Finally, several Egyptian scarabs, or amulets, found in tombs at Jericho had inscriptions placing them in the same period."
• "'The presence of these grain stores in the destroyed city is entirely consistent with the biblical account,' Dr. Wood wrote. 'The city did not fall as a result of a starvation siege, as was so common in ancient times. Instead, the Bible tells us Jericho was destroyed after but seven days.'"
• Joshua 6:1-5, "Now Jericho was tightly shut because of the sons of Israel; no one went out and no one came in. The LORD said to Joshua, 'See, I have given Jericho into your hand, with its king and the valiant warriors . . . on the seventh day you shall march around the city seven times, and the priests shall blow the trumpets. It shall be that when they make a long blast with the ram’s horn, and when you hear the sound of the trumpet, all the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city will fall down flat, and the people will go up every man straight ahead."
• Joshua 6:16-21, "Joshua said to the people, 'Shout! For the LORD has given you the city. The city shall be under the ban, it and all that is in it belongs to the LORD; only Rahab the harlot and all who are with her in the house shall live, because she hid the messengers whom we sent' . . . and the wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city, every man straight ahead, and they took the city. They utterly destroyed everything in the city, both man and woman, young and old, and ox and sheep and donkey, with the edge of the sword.."
• Joshua 6:26-27, "Then Joshua made them take an oath at that time, saying, 'Cursed before the LORD is the man who rises up and builds this city Jericho; with the loss of his firstborn he shall lay its foundation, and with the loss of his youngest son he shall set up its gates.' So the LORD was with Joshua, and his fame was in all the land."
• Joshua 8:1-28, "Now the LORD said to Joshua, 'Do not fear or be dismayed. Take all the people of war with you and arise, go up to Ai; see, I have given into your hand the king of Ai, his people, his city, and his land. You shall do to Ai and its king just as you did to Jericho and its king; you shall take only its spoil and its cattle as plunder for yourselves. Set an ambush for the city behind it.' So Joshua rose with all the people of war to go up to Ai . . . Israel took only the cattle and the spoil of that city as plunder for themselves, according to the word of the LORD which He had commanded Joshua. So Joshua burned Ai and made it a heap forever, a desolation until this day."
• To be continued . . .

 

Chronology check . . . Pharaoh who?

The fact that Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and Jewish historians all noted the Exodus begs one to take a closer look at the Pharaoh(s) involved. The story of Israel's release from Egyptian bondage is one that would have left its mark on the Egyptian rulers and people. Who was this God of Israel compared to the stronghold of Egypt?

"Awesome God" by Glad

Some parallels of Scripture and Egyptian history:

• Reverse chronology from "Pharaoh Necho" back to Exodus:
• Reign of King Josiah of Judah -  31 years (II Kings 22:1)--Josiah killed by Pharaoh Necho
• Reign of King Amon of Judah - 2 years (II Kings 21:19)
• Reign of King Manasseh of Judah - 55 years (II Kings 21:1) 
• Reign of King Hezekiah of Judah - 29 years (II Kings 18:2)  
• Reign of King Ahaz of Judah - 16 years (II Kings 16:2) 
• Reign of King Jotham of Judah - 16 years (II Kings 15:33)  
• Reign of King Azariah/Uzziah of Judah - 52 years (II Kings 15:2)
• Reign of King Amaziah of Judah - 29 years (II Kings 14:2)
• Reign of King Joash/Jehoash of Judah - 40 years (II Kings 12:1)
• Reign of Queen Athaliah of Judah - 6 years (II Kings 11:3)
• Reign of King Ahaziah of Judah - 1 year (II Kings 8:26)
• Reign of King Jehoram/Joram of Judah - 8 years (II Kings 8:17)
• Reign of King Jehoshaphat of Judah - 25 years (I Kings 22:42)
• Reign of King Asa of Judah - 41 years (I Kings 15:10)
• Reign of King Abijam of Judah - 3 years (I Kings 15:2)
• Reign of King Rehoboam of Judah - 17 years (I Kings 14:21)--Pharaoh Shishak plunders the Temple and palace during Rehoboam's 5th year.
• Reign of King Solomon - 40 years (I Kings 11:42)--Pharaoh Shishak ruling Egypt
• Time from Exodus to Solomon's 4th year of reign - 480 years (I Kings 6:1)
• Total from Exodus to Pharaoh Necho: 480 years + (36 + 17 + 3 + 41 + 25 + 8 + 1 + 6 + 40 + 29 + 52 + 16 + 16 + 29 + 55 + 2 + 31) years = 887 years
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Pharaoh Necho, who killed King Josiah, is identified with Pharaoh Necho II. Accordingly, King Josiah was slain ~608 B.C. when he went to Megiddo to oppose Pharaoh Necho II. This places the Exodus at ~1495 B.C. (608 B.C. + 887 years from Pharaoh Necho to Exodus).
• Livius.org - Pharaoh Necho in II Kings is identified with Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt, who reigned from 610 B.C. until his death in 595 B.C. Pharaoh Necho II slew King Josiah in ~609 B.C. at Megiddo. This places the Exodus at 1496 B.C. (609 B.C. + 887 years from Pharaoh Necho to Exodus).
• Tour Egypt Site - Pharaoh Shishak, the ruler of Egypt during the days of King Solomon and King Rehoboam, is identified with Pharaoh Shoshenq I, who founded the 22nd Eygptian dynasty in 945 B.C. Solomon by comparison died in 930 B.C., placing the Exodus in 1450 B.C. (930 B.C. + 40 year reign of Solomon + 480 years to Exodus).
• Oriental Institute Publications at the University of Chicago - Pharaoh Shishak is identified with Pharaoh Shoshenq I, by aid of the Bubastite Portal inscriptions at Karnak in Egypt. Pharaoh Shoshenq I made the inscriptions in ~925 B.C., after completing his Palestinian campaign. This would place the Exodus at 1450 B.C. (925 B.C. + 5 years of peace under Rehoboam + 40 year reign of Solomon + 480 years to Exodus).
• Therefore, it does indeed appear that the Exodus Pharaoh ruled no later than 1450 B.C., and at least as early as 1500 B.C. from combined Scriptural and Egyptian records.
• Egyptian Pharaohs during 1650-1450 B.C.:
• Upper and Lower Egypt disambiguation - Lower Egypt corresponded to the fertile Nile delta region (i.e. Hebrew Goshen), while Upper Egypt consisted of inland setttlements primarily along the Nile valley.
• c. 1630-1603 B.C.--Pharaoh "who did not know Joseph":
• Hyksos foreign kings - Ruled Lower Egypt during the period of c. 1630-1523 B.C. The Hyksos came from an influx of foreigners and Palestinians into Egypt (which I have previously linked to Joseph's famine). Then the Hyksos dynasty arose to usurp rule from the Egyptians in Lower Egypt, possibly through a famine in the delta region. Therefore, the Hyksos dynasty would fit the pharaoh who did not know Joseph and subjected the Hebrew people to forced labor. Interestingly, the Hyksos brought the compound bow, the horse and chariot, and better metal weaponry to Egypt.
• Death of infants -  Pre or early Hyksos period excavation layer with 65% of graves belonging to infants 2 years or younger found at Avaris Hyksos capital in Lower Egypt.
• Exodus1:8-10, 22, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. He said to his people, 'Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land' . . . Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, saying, 'Every son who is born you are to cast into the Nile, and every daughter you are to keep alive.'"
• c. 1603 B.C.--Naming of Moses:
• List of Pharaohs - Scroll down to the 16th dynasty (c. 1650-1580 B.C.) which was a native Egyptian dynasty ruling Upper Egypt at Thebes. The suffix "-mose" begins to appear with the names of Dedumose I & II, and continues in usage up to Pharaoh Thutmose IV (1400-1390 B.C.) of the 18th dynasty.
• Reshafim - Hyksos ruler Khyan finally conquered Thebes (see Fifteenth Dynasty section) c. 1610-1580 B.C., bringing Hyksos Lower Egypt into direct contact with the culture, rulers, and names in Upper Egypt.
• Exodus 2:5-6, 10, "The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe at the Nile, with her maidens walking alongside the Nile; and she saw the basket among the reeds and sent her maid, and she brought it to her. When she opened it, she saw the child, and behold, the boy was crying. And she had pity on him and said, 'This is one of the Hebrews’ children' . . . The child grew, and she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter and he became her son. And she named him Moses, and said, 'Because I drew him out of the water.'"
• c. 1523 B.C.--Death of [Hyksos] Pharaoh seeking Moses' life: 
• Pharaoh Ahmose - Re-united Upper and Lower Egypt by the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos dynasty from Lower Egypt. Pharaoh Ahomose ruled during c. 1550-1525 B.C.
• Exodus 2:11-12, 15, 23-24, "Now it came about in those days, when Moses had grown up, that he went out to his brethren and looked on their hard labors; and he saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his brethren. So he looked this way and that, and when he saw there was no one around, he struck down the Egyptian and hid him in the sand . . . When Pharaoh heard of this matter, he tried to kill Moses. But Moses fled from the presence of Pharaoh and settled in the land of Midian . . . Now it came about in the course of those many days that the king of Egypt died. And the sons of Israel sighed because of the bondage, and they cried out; and their cry for help because of their bondage rose up to God. So God heard their groaning; and God remembered His covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob."
• Exodus 7:1-2, 7, "Then the LORD said to Moses . . . 'You shall speak all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall speak to Pharaoh that he let the sons of Israel go out of his land' . . . Moses was eighty years old and Aaron eighty-three, when they spoke to Pharaoh."
• c. 1526-1500 B.C.--"Exodus" Pharaoh:
• Pharaoh Amenhotep I - Ruled Upper and Lower Egypt beginning his rule in ~1526 B.C., according to the apparent heliacal rising of Sirius during Amenhotep's 9th year, and reigned ~25 years. Amenhotep I and his mother were both deified to the rare status of patron gods of Thebes (capital of Upper Egypt) upon Amenhotep's death. Pharaoh Amenhotep I's tomb has not been discovered, only his mortuary temple. In break with tradition, his mummy was not buried in the mortuary temple.
• An Egyptologist's summary - Little is known about Pharaoh Amenhotep I. His mummy was found in a royal mummy cache at Deir el-Bahri. Although the mummy was rewrapped by Egyptian priests in the 21st dynasty, it remains the only mummy yet unwrapped in modernity.
• Exodus 14:8, 27-28, 30, "The LORD hardened the heart of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and he chased after the sons of Israel as the sons of Israel were going out boldly . . . Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the sea returned to its normal state at daybreak, while the Egyptians were fleeing right into it; then the LORD overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea. The waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, even Pharaoh’s entire army that had gone into the sea after them; not even one of them remained . . . Thus the LORD saved Israel that day from the hand of the Egyptians, and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore."
• c. 1526-1500 B.C.--Plagues and upheaval of Egypt:
• Admonition of Ipuwer (unabridged) - Describes overturning of societal ranks and  power in both Upper and Lower Egypt. The discovered Ipuwer papyrus appears to be a copy made during the New Kingdom (c. 1543-1064 B.C.), with the date of the original remaining uncertain.
• Roman Historian Tacitus - See section 3. Tacitus named the Exodus Pharaoh Bocchoris, who saw the Egyptian people afflicted with disfiguring disease during his reign. Bocchoris expelled the Hebrews from the land to cleanse his land.
• Greek Historian Diodorus - Described that the Jews were expelled from Egypt in a general expulsion of foreigners from the land to please the gods and remove a great plague.
• Exodus 12:30-36, "Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his servants and all the Egyptians . . . he called for Moses and Aaron at night and said, 'Rise up, get out from among my people, both you and the sons of Israel; and go . . . Take both your flocks and your herds, as you have said, and go, and bless me also.' The Egyptians urged the people, to send them out of the land in haste, for they said, 'We will all be dead' . . . Now the sons of Israel had done according to the word of Moses, for they had requested from the Egyptians articles of silver and articles of gold, and clothing; and the LORD had given the people favor in the sight of the Egyptians, so that they let them have their request. Thus they plundered the Egyptians."
• c. 1500 B.C.--Death of Egyptian firstborn:
• Amenhotep I (1526-1506 B.C.) - Amenhotep's only heir died in his youth, resulting in appointment of his brother-in-law to inherit the throne.
• Thutmose I (1493-1982 B.C.) - Thutmose I held half-royal sonship right to Pharaoh Amenhotep's throne, likely ruled as co-regent for some time with Amenhotep I, pursued the expelled Hyksos rulers, renovated the Thebes temple of Amon, suffered loss of two crown princes (one led his armies), and expanded the Dayr al-Madīnah workers village.
• Exodus 12:29-30, "Now it came about at midnight that the LORD struck all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the firstborn of the captive [excluding the Hebrew people who observed their first Passover--see Exodus 12:21-23] who was in the dungeon, and all the firstborn of cattle. Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his servants and all the Egyptians, and there was a great cry in Egypt, for there was no home where there was not someone dead."
• c. 1500 B.C. (see first part of post)--Red Sea crossing:
• Egyptian account: the Egyptians who pursued the Israelites are said to have all perished in the Red Sea and thus could not write an account of this event.
• Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews - See Chap. 16, section 2. When the Israelites had crossed the Red Sea on dry ground and the Egyptians pursued after them into the Red Sea, the waters fell back on the Egyptians, drowning the entire army, accompanied by wind, rain, thunder, and lightening. No Egyptian survived to return with the tale to Egypt.
• Psalm 77:16-20, "The waters saw You, O God;
              The waters saw You, they were in anguish;
              The deeps also trembled.
        The clouds poured out water;
              The skies gave forth a sound;
              Your arrows flashed here and there.
        The sound of Your thunder was in the whirlwind;
              The lightnings lit up the world;
              The earth trembled and shook.
        Your way was in the sea
              And Your paths in the mighty waters,
              And Your footprints may not be known.
        You led Your people like a flock
              By the hand of Moses and Aaron."

A Nation Redeemed. (Part II)

The next installment on the Exodus follows. Since this is a highly contested account in both Christian and secular circles, it seems important to examine it in detail. Might it be contested due to failure to carefully read the Exodus account and parallel accounts in Scripture? Or is it being contested because it portrays supernatural events?


Facts, customs, and widespread beliefs:

• Hebrew language links to Ancient Egyptian:
• Egyptologists' Electronic Forum - Ancient Egyptian words are denoted AE. Scroll down and see entries: [A] 2, 11, 12, 14, 18.
• Menachem Mendel - Blog written by Michael Pitkowsky, who is the Rabbinics Curriculum Coordinator at the Academy for Jewish Religion. Pitkowsky presents recent scholarship associating many Hebrew words with Egyptian roots.
• Genesis 15:12-16 (NIV), "As the sun was setting, Abram fell into a deep sleep, and a thick and dreadful darkness came over him. Then the Lord said to him, 'Know for certain that for four hundred years your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own and that they will be enslaved and mistreated there. But I will punish the nation they serve as slaves, and afterward they will come out with great possessions. You, however, will go to your ancestors in peace and be buried at a good old age. In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here [Four generations certainly allows time to become fluent in Egyptian and begin adopting words into Hebrew] . . .'"
• Genesis 41:46-52, "Joseph was thirty years old when he entered the service of Pharaoh [likely requiring understanding of Egyptian] king of Egypt. And Joseph went out from Pharaoh’s presence and traveled throughout Egypt . . . Before the years of famine came, two sons were born to Joseph by Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On [Joseph must have spoken Egyptian with his wife]."
• Genesis 42:18-23, "On the third day, Joseph said to them, 'Do this and you will live, for I fear God: If you are honest men, let one of your brothers stay here in prison, while the rest of you go and take grain back for your starving households. But you must bring your youngest brother to me, so that your words may be verified and that you may not die.' This they proceeded to do. They said to one another, 'Surely we are being punished because of our brother. We saw how distressed he was when he pleaded with us for his life, but we would not listen; that’s why this distress has come on us.' Reuben replied, 'Didn’t I tell you not to sin against the boy? But you wouldn’t listen! Now we must give an accounting for his blood.' They did not realize that Joseph could understand them, since he was using an interpreter [implying that Joseph now fluently spoke Egyptian, as he spoke Egyptian to the interpreter]."

• Chariots in Egypt around B.C. 1550:
• Egyptian tourist site - Introduction of chariot technology in Egypt dated to Asiatic Hyksos arrival.
• Ancient History Encyclopedia - Hyksos charioteers introduced the chariot to Egypt around 1650 B.C., when their dynasty in Northern Egypt was established.
• Exodus 14:5-9, "When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, Pharaoh and his servants had a change of heart toward the people, and they said, 'What is this we have done, that we have let Israel go from serving us?' So he made his chariot ready and took his people with him; and he took six hundred select chariots, and all the other chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them. The LORD hardened the heart of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and he chased after the sons of Israel as the sons of Israel were going out boldly. Then the Egyptians chased after them with all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, his horsemen and his army, and they overtook them camping by the sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, in front of Baal-zephon."

• Story and name of Moses:
• An Islamic website - Names Moses as Musa, and relates a story closely paralleling Scripture.
• Another Islamic website - Again names Moses as Musa, and relates a story paralleling Scripture.
• Roman Historian Tacitus - Named Moses as Moyses in his 5th book of Historiae. See third section in linked page. Some parallels to Scripture are evident in Tacitus' story.
• Torah.org - Names Moses as Moshe under Judaism and affirms the historicity of Moshe's life.
• Greek Historian Diodorus Siculus - Identified Moses as the leader of the people who left Egypt to settle in Judaea, as well as the one who gave this people their laws and priesthood.
• Egyptologists' Electronic Forum - Scroll down to entry [A] 11 to see Egyptian origin of the name "Moses".
• Egyptian Historian Manetho:
• According to Josephus, Manetho declares that the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt during the time of Pharaoh Tuthmosis, of the 18th Dynasty. 
• According to George Syncellus, who was commenting on Julius Africanus' preservation of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Moses and Israel's departure from Egypt should be placed during the reign of Pharaoh Amos, the first king of the 18th Dynasty.
• Compare to Exodus 1-14

• Hebrew Passover:
• Judaism 101 - Provides extensive details on the Passover meal, noting that the Passover is still observed in some form by 67% of Jews to this day.
• Reform Judaism - Similar description of the Passover meal, noting that the first Passover was associated with the Exodus from Egypt. The Passover was also one of the three feasts for which the Israelite people congregated, and yet seek to congregate, in Jerusalem.
• Exodus 12:1-13, "Now the LORD said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, 'This month shall be the beginning of months for you; it is to be the first month of the year to you. Speak to all the congregation of Israel, saying, "On the tenth of this month they are each one to take a lamb for themselves, according to their fathers’ households, a lamb for each household . . . You shall keep it until the fourteenth day of the same month, then the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel is to kill it at twilight. Moreover, they shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and on the lintel of the houses in which they eat it. They shall eat the flesh that same night, roasted with fire, and they shall eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. Do not eat any of it raw or boiled at all with water, but rather roasted with fire, both its head and its legs along with its entrails. And you shall not leave any of it over until morning, but whatever is left of it until morning, you shall burn with fire. Now you shall eat it in this manner: with your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it in haste—it is the LORD’S Passover. For I will go through the land of Egypt on that night, and will strike down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments—I am the LORD. The blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you live; and when I see the blood I will pass over you, and no plague will befall you to destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt. Now this day will be a memorial to you, and you shall celebrate it as a feast to the LORD; throughout your generations you are to celebrate it as a permanent ordinance."'" 

• Hebrew calendar beginning with Passover month:
• Reform Judaism - According to the Jewish calendar, Passover is observed in the month of Nissan, the first month.
• General Source - Scroll down to months section. Nissan is the first month and is the month of Passover.
• Exodus 12:1-3, "Now the LORD said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, 'This month shall be the beginning of months for you; it is to be the first month of the year to you. Speak to all the congregation of Israel, saying, "On the tenth of this month they are each one to take a lamb for themselves . . ."'"

• Enmity between Israel and Egypt enduring into modern times:
• The Middle East Quarterly - Modern-day wars and tensions between Egypt and Israel.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Egyptian-Isreali conflict example in six-day war between Israel and its Egyptian-led Arab coalition in 1967. 
• Jerusalem Post - Egyptian study showed that the Egyptian people view Israel as the most hostile nation toward them (Egyptian public opinion research site - poll referenced in Jerusalem Post article is 3rd from top on web page).
• Exodus 1:8-11, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. He said to his people, 'Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.' So they appointed taskmasters over them to afflict them with hard labor. And they built for Pharaoh storage cities, Pithom and Raamses."
• Exodus 14:28-30, "The waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, even Pharaoh’s entire army that had gone into the sea after them; not even one of them remained. But the sons of Israel walked on dry land through the midst of the sea, and the waters were like a wall to them on their right hand and on their left. Thus the LORD saved Israel that day from the hand of the Egyptians, and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore." 

• Red Sea and the Sinai wilderness relative to Goshen, Egypt:
• Red Sea:
• Islamic viewpoint - Scroll down to Part 9. The Red Sea is considered to be an actual portion of the Red Sea, with deep water, and not marshland.
• Jewish viewpoint -  Jewish interpretation of the Torah holds the Red Sea to name a body of deep water also, not merely marshland or a flood-plain.
• Exodus 13:17-18, "Now when Pharaoh had let the people go, God did not lead them by the way of the land of the Philistines, even though it was near; for God said, 'The people might change their minds when they see war, and return to Egypt.' Hence God led the people around by the way of the wilderness to the Red Sea; and the sons of Israel went up in martial array from the land of Egypt."
• Exodus 14:26-29, "Then the LORD said to Moses, 'Stretch out your hand over the sea so that the waters may come back over the Egyptians, over their chariots and their horsemen.' So Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the sea returned to its normal state at daybreak, while the Egyptians were fleeing right into it; then the LORD overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea. The waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, even Pharaoh’s entire army that had gone into the sea after them; not even one of them remained. But the sons of Israel walked on dry land through the midst of the sea, and the waters were like a wall to them on their right hand and on their left."

• Mount Sinai/Horeb:
• Islamic viewpoint - Both the Islamic Quran and the Old Testament require that Horeb be located in or near the land of Midian (the people of Moses' father-in-law), which corresponds to modern-day Saudi Arabia. Jabal al Lawz is one suggested candidate mountain in Saudi Arabia.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Midianites were nomadic people believed to have lived east of the Gulf of Aqaba in modern-day Saudi Arabia.
• Jabal al Lawz - A mountain with a visibly darkened peak, as seen below:

• Exodus 3:1-2, "Now Moses was pasturing the flock of Jethro his father-in-law, the priest of Midian; and he led the flock to the west side of the wilderness and came to Horeb, the mountain of God. The angel of the LORD appeared to him in a blazing fire from the midst of a bush; and he looked, and behold, the bush was burning with fire, yet the bush was not consumed."
• Exodus 19:17-20, "And Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain. Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke because the LORD descended upon it in fire; and its smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked violently. When the sound of the trumpet grew louder and louder, Moses spoke and God answered him with thunder. The LORD came down on Mount Sinai, to the top of the mountain; and the LORD called Moses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up."
• II Chron. 5:10, "There was nothing in the ark except the two tablets which Moses put there at Horeb, where the LORD made a covenant with the sons of Israel, when they came out of Egypt."
• Psalm 106:19-22, "They made a calf in Horeb
              And worshiped a molten image.
        Thus they exchanged their glory
              For the image of an ox that eats grass.
        They forgot God their Savior,
              Who had done great things in Egypt,
        Wonders in the land of Ham
              And awesome things by the Red Sea."           

• Split rock in the wilderness:
• Al Naslaa, Tayma petroglyph - Lone rock in Saudi Arabia at Tayma with very uniform split running through middle, visibly eroded base, and clear trace of nomadic presence. 
• Geography of modern day route from Cairo to Tayma (see split rock Al Naslaa above):

Google Maps modern day route from Cairo, Egypt to split rock at Tayma, Saudi Arabia

• Psalm 78:13-18, "He divided the sea and caused them to
        pass through,
              And He made the waters stand up like a heap.
        Then He led them with the cloud by day
              And all the night with a light of fire.
        He split the rocks in the wilderness
              And gave them abundant drink like the ocean
              depths.
        He brought forth streams also from the rock
              And caused waters to run down like rivers.
        Yet they still continued to sin against Him,
              To rebel against the Most High in the desert.
        And in their heart they put God to the test
              By asking food according to their desire."

• Rock Art in Saudi Arabia:
• Cattle petroglyphs - Artistic work is very similar to that seen in ancient Egypt. The Saudi petroglyphs may date to sometime in the 2nd millenium B.C.
• Exodus 12:37-39, "Now the sons of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children. A mixed multitude also went up with them, along with flocks and herds, a very large number of livestock. They baked the dough which they had brought out of Egypt into cakes of unleavened bread. For it had not become leavened, since they were driven out of Egypt and could not delay, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves."
• Sheep petroglyphs - Awassi, fat-tailed sheep drawn on surfaces of rocks were bred and domesticated prior to 2000 B.C. Their fat tail allows them to endure arid climates in Africa, the Middle East, and other regions (see fao.org website for more information).
• Leviticus 6:6-7, "Then he shall bring to the priest his guilt offering to the LORD, a ram without defect from the flock, according to your valuation, for a guilt offering, and the priest shall make atonement for him before the LORD, and he will be forgiven for any one of the things which he may have done to incur guilt."
• Leviticus 7:2-3, "'In the place where they slay the burnt offering they are to slay the guilt offering, and he shall sprinkle its blood around on the altar. Then he shall offer from it all its fat: the fat tail and the fat that covers the entrails . . .'" 

A Nation Redeemed. (Part I)

Genesis 15:12-16 (NIV), "As the sun was setting, Abram fell into a deep sleep, and a thick and dreadful darkness came over him. Then the Lord said to him, “Know for certain that for four hundred years your descendants will be strangers [or sojourners, just like Abraham] in a country not their own [no land that they dwelt in was their own until the conquest of Canaan] and that they will be enslaved and mistreated there. But I will punish the nation they serve as slaves, and afterward they will come out with great possessions. You, however, will go to your ancestors in peace and be buried at a good old age. In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here, for the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure.”'"

Exodus 12:31-42 (Septuagint), "And Pharao called Moses and Aaron by night, and said to them, 'Rise and depart from my people, both ye and the children of Israel. Go and serve the Lord your God, even as ye say' . . . And the children Israel departed from Ramesses to Socchoth, to the full number of six hundred thousand footmen, even men, besides the baggage. And a great mixed company went up with them, and sheep and oxen and very much cattle. And they baked the dough which they brought out of Egypt, unleavened cakes, for it had not been leavened; for the Egyptians cast them out, and they could not remain, neither did they prepare provision for themselves for the journey. And the sojourning of the children of Israel, while they sojourned in the land of Egypt and the land of Chanaan, was four hundred and thirty years. And it came to pass after the four hundred and thirty years, all the forces of the Lord came forth out of the land of Egypt by night. It is a watch kept to the Lord, so that he should bring them out of the land of Egypt; that very night is a watch kept to the Lord, so that it should be to all the children of Israel to their generations."

Dating check on 400 vs. 430 years:

• Exodus 6:16-20 (NAS), "These are the names of the sons of Levi according to their generations: Gershon and Kohath and Merari; and the length of Levi’s life was one hundred and thirty-seven years . . . The sons of Kohath: Amram and Izhar and Hebron and Uzziel; and the length of Kohath’s life was one hundred and thirty-three years . . . Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed [daughter of Levi who entered Egypt], and she bore him Aaron and Moses; and the length of Amram’s life was one hundred and thirty-seven years."
• Passage confirms that the number of generations in Egypt following Joseph's famine totaled four generations (tracing from Moses back through his father Amram to Levi, the first generation).
• Since only 40 years wandering in the wilderness was required for the rebellious generation to die (with the help of plagues), one should give 40-60 years per generation.
• Calculating: 4 generations * 50 years per generation = 200 year sojourn in Egypt following Joseph's famine.
• Therefore, the 400 years foretold to Abraham must begin many years before Joseph's famine.
• Interestingly, in my prior May 7th post, I already calculated ~202 years from Abraham's famine to Joseph's famine. These additional ~200 years of sojourning would complete the four hundred fortold to Abraham.
• Galations 3:16-17 (NAS), "[apostle Paul writing] Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. He does not say, 'And to seeds,' as referring to many, but rather to one, 'And to your seed,' that is, Christ. What I am saying is this: the Law, which came four hundred and thirty years later, does not invalidate a covenant previously ratified by God, so as to nullify the promise." 
• According to apostle Paul, the timespan from God's promise to Abraham to the post-exodus Mosaic Law numbered 430 years, matching the 430 years referenced in Exodus 12.
• Therefore, this timespan appears to be a timespan of sojournings (plus time in the wilderness receiving the Law), including those of Abraham (post-promise), Isaac, and Jacob.
• The last 30 years of the 430 years in Gal 3 may lead up to God's final instructions to Moses regarding the Mosaic Law. 
• Josephus on the Exodus - See the beginning of Chapter 15, section #2. Josephus assigned 215 years to the sojourn in Egypt, dating the beginning of the 430 years to Abraham's entry into Canaan.

Facts/Archaeology/Historical documentation:

• Early Historians on the Date of the Exodus - Exodus dated to about 1550 B.C., following a ~215 year sojourn in Egypt.
• Storage cities of Pithom and Rameses:
• Pithom
• Rough Guides travel site - City identified by some with Tell al-Maskhuta.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Hebrew Pithom transliterates to Egyptian Per-Atum/Per Tum, meaning "Estate of Atum", and may correspond to present-day Tall al-Maskhuta, near Ismalia. Tall al-Maskhuta did have a Hyksos period settlement.
• Rameses
• Rough Guides travel site - city identified anachronistically with site of later Pi-Ramses which corresponds to present-day Qantir with extension to adjacent Avaris (which dates to before the Hyksos settlement around 1800 B.C., although it became the Hyksos capital)
• Bietak and Forstner-Müller Archaeology - the southern part of later Pi-Ramses overlapped with the earlier Hyksos capital of Avaris, which was conquered in 1530 B.C. by Pharaoh Ahmose. The brickwork citidal was destroyed and replaced with large storage facilities, including many silos.
• Journal of Near Eastern Studies (JSTOR) - According to E. P. Uphill in his article "Pithom and Raamses: Their Location and Significance", the city of Rameses/Pi-Ramses was located at Qantir (p. 39). It was described by scribe Pbes as having graneries filled with barley and emmer, along with abundant production of onions, leeks, figs, fish, etc. (p. 15).
• Exodus 1:8-11 (NAS), "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. He said to his people, 'Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.' So they appointed taskmasters over them to afflict them with hard labor. And they built for Pharaoh storage cities, Pithom and Raamses."
• Egyptian subjection of Hebrews/Semitic peoples to forced labor:
• Medical Hypotheses journal article - Quote from p. 907, "Confirmation of the Hebrew settlement comes from an Egyptian document, which places Hebrews in the Nile Delta, and it places them around the time of the epidemic in Avaris. Brooklyn papyrus 35.1146 is a record from the brief reign of his majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Sekhemre’ Sewadjtowy, also known as Sobekhotep III (1700 BC). It is a register, which on one of its sides lists 95 slaves and/or domestics (hry-pr), who were transferred from the Nile delta to an estate in Southern Egypt. Several names on the list are Hebrew, or reflect prayers of the Hebrews interned in the labor camps in Egypt (Ps.18.7, Ps.22.5-6, Ps.77.1-11). Both the 10th (Haiimi) and the 62nd person (Hi-abi-ilu) have names meaning, 'Where is my father?'. The name means the same as the Hebrew Ayyabum (Job), which is known in biblical literature. The 62nd person was also known by her Egyptian name 'Neh-ni-em-khasut', which stands for 'there is a prayer for me in foreign land'. Her son's name (63rd slave) was Abi (Hebrew: 'my father') also known as Seneb-nebef (Egyptian: 'his Lord is in good health'). Weaver Menahem (11th on the list) carries a name that will surface in the 8th century BC as the name of a Hebrew king. The list also includes members of the Hebrew tribe of Issachar (13th, 14th, 16th, 22nd and 67th servants on the list), and Asher (23rd and 24th servants). Shepra, the 21st domestic, carries another Hebrew name, which is found in the biblical account of exodus (Ex.1.15). The Asiatic servant Aduna (33rd on the list) carries a Hebrew name that means 'my lord'; her son (34th on the list) would also be Hebrew. Aqaba, the 37th deported person, carries a name that is related to the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, also known as Israel. The 59th person was Asiatic, and was also known as Iun-er-tan ('can we go back to our land?'). Finally, the 80th domestic carries a name implying '[God] shines', and is known from Hebrew sources as 'Shaddai shines'." (Science Direct link).
• "'House of Bondage': Can We Reconcile the Biblical Account of Hebrew Slavery with Egyptian Historical Records?" (Marla A. Samaan) - See pp. 17-22 of this undergraduate senior research project paper for similar attestation to finding Hebrew names among a list of domestic servants. Note is also taken of Asiatics working as brickmakers under Egyptian overseers.
• Exodus 1:8-14, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. He said to his people, 'Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.' So they appointed taskmasters over them to afflict them with hard labor . . . But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and the more they spread out, so that they were in dread of the sons of Israel. The Egyptians compelled the sons of Israel to labor rigorously; and they made their lives bitter with hard labor in mortar and bricks and at all kinds of labor in the field, all their labors which they rigorously imposed on them."
• Putting to death of the Hebrew male newborns:
• Rough Guides travel site - Avaris excavation layer unearthed with 65% of graves belonging to children under 2 years old.
• Medical Hypotheses journal article - Quote from p. 906-907, "It follows that the presence of the Minoans also places chronological boundaries regarding the disease. This epidemic stemming from Asia must have taken place in the window 1800–1600/1550 BC, when Minoans traded with Egypt . . . Furthermore, the so-called stratum F of Avaris also links the Avaris epidemic to the biblical texts. This layer contains archaeological material, which has been dated to roughly 1710–1680 BC, thus spanning the generation right after the epidemic. This layer shows two peculiarities. Many tombs belong to non-Egyptians. For instance, the so-called tomb p/14-Nr.18 contained a non-Egyptian warrior, most likely a mercenary. His copper sword with riveted socket attests to the presence of Asiatics in the Eastern Nile Delta at the time, and shows that the culture at Avaris was quite similar to the one existing in urban centers across Canaan, Syria and Transjordan. The F layer also contains an unusually high number of tombs for young children. This layer, which is later than the epidemic, parallels the biblical texts of the aforementioned massacre of the Hebrew newborn, which took place sometime during the period of the enslavement." (Science Direct link)
• Exodus 1:15-22, "Then the king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives, one of whom was named Shiphrah and the other was named Puah; and he said, 'When you are helping the Hebrew women to give birth and see them upon the birthstool, if it is a son, then you shall put him to death; but if it is a daughter, then she shall live.' But the midwives feared God, and did not do as the king of Egypt had commanded them, but let the boys live. So the king of Egypt called for the midwives and said to them, 'Why have you done this thing, and let the boys live?' The midwives said to Pharaoh, 'Because the Hebrew women are not as the Egyptian women; for they are vigorous and give birth before the midwife can get to them.' So God was good to the midwives, and the people multiplied, and became very mighty. Because the midwives feared God, He established households for them. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, saying, 'Every son who is born you are to cast into the Nile, and every daughter you are to keep alive.'" 
• Context of Moses' birth:
• Egyptian Tourist site - Basket weaving dates back to ~5000 B.C. in Egypt, with some techniques even employed in making river rafts.
• Exodus 2:1-3, "Now a man from the house of Levi went and married a daughter of Levi. The woman conceived and bore a son [Moses]; and when she saw that he was beautiful, she hid him for three months. But when she could hide him no longer, she got him a wicker basket and covered it over with tar and pitch. Then she put the child into it and set it among the reeds by the bank of the Nile."
• Manfred Bietak Archaeology -  Some citidal structures and palatial gardens along the Nile at the village Ezbet Helmi (at the site of Avaris) correspond to the late Hyksos Period (before 1530 BC).
• Exodus 2:5-6, "The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe at the Nile, with her maidens walking alongside the Nile; and she saw the basket among the reeds and sent her maid, and she brought it to her. When she opened it, she saw the child, and behold, the boy was crying. And she had pity on him and said, 'This is one of the Hebrews’ children.'"
• Egyptian magicians and their claimed powers:
• Admonitions of Ipuwer (unabridged) - See Chapter VI, where magic spells are divulged and frustrated.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Egyptians worshipped the goddess Isis, whom they venerated as a great magician.
• BBC History Article - Provides a detailed, general overview of Egyptian magicians.
• Exodus 7:10-12, "So Moses and Aaron came to Pharaoh, and thus they did just as the LORD had commanded; and Aaron threw his staff down before Pharaoh and his servants, and it became a serpent. Then Pharaoh also called for the wise men and the sorcerers, and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did the same with their secret arts. For each one threw down his staff and they turned into serpents. But Aaron’s staff swallowed up their staffs."
• Exodus 7:20-22, "So Moses and Aaron did even as the LORD had commanded. And he lifted up the staff and struck the water that was in the Nile, in the sight of Pharaoh and in the sight of his servants, and all the water that was in the Nile was turned to blood. The fish that were in the Nile died, and the Nile became foul, so that the Egyptians could not drink water from the Nile. And the blood was through all the land of Egypt. But the magicians of Egypt did the same with their secret arts; and Pharaoh’s heart was hardened . . ."
• Exodus 8:5-7, "Then the LORD said to Moses, 'Say to Aaron, "Stretch out your hand with your staff over the rivers, over the streams and over the pools, and make frogs come up on the land of Egypt."' So Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt, and the frogs came up and covered the land of Egypt. The magicians did the same with their secret arts, making frogs come up on the land of Egypt."
• Exodus 8:16-19, "Then the LORD said to Moses, 'Say to Aaron, "Stretch out your staff and strike the dust of the earth, that it may become gnats through all the land of Egypt."' They did so; and Aaron stretched out his hand with his staff, and struck the dust of the earth, and there were gnats on man and beast. All the dust of the earth became gnats through all the land of Egypt. The magicians tried with their secret arts to bring forth gnats, but they could not; so there were gnats on man and beast. Then the magicians said to Pharaoh, 'This is the finger of God.' But Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he did not listen to them, as the LORD had said."
• Break in the power of Pharoahs around B.C. 1550:
• PBS - The mid-dynasty Hyksos Pharaohs surpassed those of Upper (southern) Egypt in might, killing southern Pharaoh Seqenenre Taa I and his whole army.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Hyksos dynasty ended ~1523 B.C. with conquest of the Hyksos capital of Avaris by Pharaoh Ahmose of Upper (southern) Egypt.
• Rabbi Mordechai Becher - Ten Plagues on Egypt are comparable to calamities noted in the "Admonitions of Ipuwer" Egyptian papyrus.
• Admonitions of Ipuwer (unabridged)
• Exodus 7:16-21, "You shall say to him, 'The LORD, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to you, saying, "Let My people go, that they may serve Me in the wilderness. But behold, you have not listened until now"' . . . So Moses and Aaron did even as the LORD had commanded. And he lifted up the staff and struck the water that was in the Nile, in the sight of Pharaoh and in the sight of his servants, and all the water that was in the Nile was turned to blood. The fish that were in the Nile died, and the Nile became foul . . ."
• Exodus 9:2-6, "'"'For if you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them, behold, the hand of the LORD will come with a very severe pestilence on your livestock which are in the field, on the horses, on the donkeys, on the camels, on the herds, and on the flocks'"' . . . So the LORD did this thing on the next day, and all the livestock of Egypt died; but of the livestock of the sons of Israel, not one died."
• Exodus 9:22-26, "Now the LORD said to Moses, 'Stretch out your hand toward the sky, that hail may fall on all the land of Egypt, on man and on beast and on every plant of the field, throughout the land of Egypt.' Moses stretched out his staff toward the sky, and the LORD sent thunder and hail, and fire ran down to the earth. And the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt. So there was hail, and fire flashing continually in the midst of the hail, very severe, such as had not been in all the land of Egypt since it became a nation. The hail struck all that was in the field through all the land of Egypt, both man and beast; the hail also struck every plant of the field and shattered every tree of the field.Only in the land of Goshen, where the sons of Israel were, there was no hail."
• Exodus 10:13-15, "So Moses stretched out his staff over the land of Egypt, and the LORD directed an east wind on the land all that day and all that night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts. The locusts came up over all the land of Egypt and settled in all the territory of Egypt; they were very numerous. There had never been so many locusts, nor would there be so many again. For they covered the surface of the whole land, so that the land was darkened; and they ate every plant of the land and all the fruit of the trees that the hail had left. Thus nothing green was left on tree or plant of the field through all the land of Egypt." 
• Exodus 12:29-32, "Now it came about at midnight that the LORD struck all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the firstborn of the captive who was in the dungeon, and all the firstborn of cattle. Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his servants and all the Egyptians, and there was a great cry in Egypt, for there was no home where there was not someone dead [except among the Hebrews--see Exodus 12:23]. Then he called for Moses and Aaron at night and said, 'Rise up, get out from among my people, both you and the sons of Israel; and go, worship the LORD, as you have said. Take both your flocks and your herds, as you have said, and go, and bless me also.'"
• Exodus 12:35-38, "Now the sons of Israel had done according to the word of Moses, for they had requested from the Egyptians articles of silver and articles of gold, and clothing; and the LORD had given the people favor in the sight of the Egyptians, so that they let them have their request. Thus they plundered the Egyptians. Now the sons of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children. A mixed multitude also went up with them, along with flocks and herds, a very large number of livestock." 

Two brothers. One people. One God. (Part II)

On to the New Testament writings concerning Aaron and Moses. How were these two figures remembered by the modern (Roman era) Jews? Were Moses and Aaron merely characters useful for theological debate? Was their story of leading the Israelite people up from Egypt merely a parable?

Ok, this will again be difficult. I just scrolled through (on the Bible Hub website) the New Testament references to Moses, and I will definitely need to condense. If the following seems long, well, I still did condense.

"Whom Shall I Fear" by Chris Tomlin

New Testament references to Moses and Aaron:

• Mark 9:2-8, "Six days later, Jesus took with Him Peter and James and John, and brought them up on a high mountain by themselves. And He was transfigured before them; and His garments became radiant and exceedingly white, as no launderer on earth can whiten them. Elijah appeared to them along with Moses; and they were talking with Jesus. Peter said to Jesus, 'Rabbi, it is good for us to be here; let us make three tabernacles, one for You, and one for Moses, and one for Elijah.' For he did not know what to answer; for they became terrified. Then a cloud formed, overshadowing them, and a voice came out of the cloud, 'This is My beloved Son, listen to Him!' All at once they looked around and saw no one with them anymore, except Jesus alone."
• Moses - portrayed as a historical man.
• How could Jesus speak to imaginary men?
• Why would Jesus associate with imaginary characters before his disciples? How would that help His credibility?
• Why would Peter suggest building a real tabernacle/tent/dwelling for an imaginary Moses?
• Why would Peter, James, and John be terrified, at the same time, unless they really observed something extraordinary (i.e. the transfiguration of Christ and the appearance of ancestors)?
• Why would Peter identify an imaginary Moses?
• Luke 1:1-7, "Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; so that you may know the exact truth about the things you have been taught.
        In the days of Herod, king of Judea, there was a priest named Zacharias, of the division of Abijah; and he had a wife from the daughters [descendents] of Aaron, and her name was Elizabeth. They were both righteous in the sight of God, walking blamelessly in all the commandments and requirements of the Lord. But they had no child, because Elizabeth was barren, and they were both advanced in years."
• Aaron - portrayed as a historical man.
• Why would an eyewitness account of Christ begin with reference to descendents (Zacharias and Elizabeth) of an imaginary person Aaron?
• Why would the author profess to teach the "exact truth" and then reference an imaginary Aaron?
• Why retain the priesthood of Aaron from the conquest/settlement of Canaan through to Roman rule, if Aaron was an imaginary figure?
• Why bother with writing out an acount of Christ "in consecutive order" if you're starting with imaginary ancestry which has no place in human history?
• Why note details such as the priestly division of Abijah, when the whole priesthood had fictitious origins in an imaginary Aaron?
  
• John 5:39-47, "[Jesus speaking to the Jews seeking to kill Him] 'You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; it is these that testify about Me; and you are unwilling to come to Me so that you may have life. I do not receive glory from men; but I know you, that you do not have the love of God in yourselves. I have come in My Father’s name, and you do not receive Me; if another comes in his own name, you will receive him. How can you believe, when you receive glory from one another and you do not seek the glory that is from the one and only God? Do not think that I will accuse you before the Father; the one who accuses you is Moses, in whom you have set your hope. For if you believed Moses, you would believe Me, for he wrote about Me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will you believe My words?'"
• Moses - portrayed as a historical man.
• How could an imaginary man Moses accuse the Jews seeking to kill Christ?
• Why would the Jews set their hope in an imaginary man?
• How could the Jews possibly "believe" the words/writings of an imaginary man? Yet, Jesus implied that they should.
• Why would Jesus inseverably tie belief in the testimony of an imaginary man Moses to belief in His own real testimony? Wouldn't this be self-defeating?
• Why would Jesus attribute "writings" to Moses, if Moses never lived?
• Acts 7:2-53, "And he said [Stephen speaking before the Jewish Council and the high priest], 'Hear me, brethren and fathers! The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham when he was in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran . . . But as the time of the promise was approaching which God had assured to Abraham, the people increased and multiplied in Egypt, until THERE AROSE ANOTHER KING OVER EGYPT WHO KNEW NOTHING ABOUT JOSEPH. It was he who took shrewd advantage of our race and mistreated our fathers so that they would expose their infants and they would not survive. It was at this time that Moses was born; and he was lovely in the sight of God, and he was nurtured three months in his father’s home. And after he had been set outside, Pharaoh’s daughter took him away and nurtured him as her own son. Moses was educated in all the learning of the Egyptians, and he was a man of power in words and deeds . . . MOSES FLED AND BECAME AN ALIEN IN THE LAND OF MIDIAN, where he became the father of two sons. After forty years had passed, AN ANGEL APPEARED TO HIM IN THE WILDERNESS OF MOUNT Sinai . . . THE LORD SAID TO HIM, "TAKE OFF THE SANDALS FROM YOUR FEET, FOR THE PLACE ON WHICH YOU ARE STANDING IS HOLY GROUND. I HAVE CERTAINLY SEEN THE OPPRESSION OF MY PEOPLE IN EGYPT AND HAVE HEARD THEIR GROANS, AND I HAVE COME DOWN TO RESCUE THEM; COME NOW, AND I WILL SEND YOU TO EGYPT." . . . This man led them out, performing wonders and signs in the land of Egypt and in the Red Sea and in the wilderness for forty years. This is the Moses who said to the sons of Israel, "GOD WILL RAISE UP FOR YOU A PROPHET LIKE ME FROM YOUR BRETHREN." [see also Acts 3:17-24] This is the one who was in the congregation in the wilderness together with the angel who was speaking to him on Mount Sinai, and who was with our fathers; and he received living oracles to pass on to you. Our fathers were unwilling to be obedient to him, but repudiated him and in their hearts turned back to Egypt, SAYING TO AARON, "MAKE FOR US GODS WHO WILL GO BEFORE US; FOR THIS MOSES WHO LED US OUT OF THE LAND OF EGYPT—WE DO NOT KNOW WHAT HAPPENED TO HIM." At that time they made a calf and brought a sacrifice to the idol . . . Our fathers had the tabernacle of testimony in the wilderness, just as He who spoke to Moses directed him to make it according to the pattern which he had seen . . . You men who are stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears are always resisting the Holy Spirit; you are doing just as your fathers did. Which one of the prophets did your fathers not persecute? They killed those who had previously announced the coming of the Righteous One, whose betrayers and murderers you have now become; you who received the law as ordained by angels, and yet did not keep it.'"
• Moses and Aaron - portrayed as historical men.
• Why would Stephen speak of the enslavement of real Jewish forefathers ("our fathers") and then describe their deliverance through an imaginary man Moses?
• How could the birth of an imaginary man Moses answer the "time of promise"?
• Why describe the details of Moses' birth and education, if Moses was merely an imaginary figure, when he wasn't doing anything to save Israel from bondage at that point?
• How could an imaginary man Moses be a "prophet"?
• Why would a real, coming Messiah be likened to an imaginary man? If deliverance through Moses was imaginary, would that not imply imaginary salvation through a coming Messiah?
• How could real Jewish forefathers ("Our fathers") speak to an imaginary Aaron?
• How could an imaginary Aaron lead Israel into real idolatry by fashioning idols?
• What meaning would there be for Stephen to say that his listeners were rebelling in the same manner as imaginary forefathers, such as Aaron?
• How could Israel receive the law and pattern for the tabernacle directly from God, if Moses wasn't there in person to receive God's instructions?
• Hebrews 7:11-14, "Now if perfection was through the Levitical priesthood (for on the basis of it the people received the Law), what further need was there for another priest to arise according to the order of Melchizedek, and not be designated according to the order of Aaron? For when the priesthood is changed, of necessity there takes place a change of law also. For the one concerning whom these things are spoken belongs to another tribe, from which no one has officiated at the altar. For it is evident that our Lord was descended from Judah, a tribe with reference to which Moses spoke nothing concerning priests."
• Moses and Aaron - portrayed as historical men.
• How could you have the real "order of Aaron", if Aaron, the originator of that order, never lived?
• How could the Levitical priesthood be tied to the real law at the same time as it was tied to an imaginary Aaron?
• If the Jewish genealogies are historically accurate in describing how Jesus was descended from Judah, why would they be merely imaginative in saying that Aaron was descended from Judah's brother Levi?
• How could an imaginary Moses' be the religious authority regarding the real priesthood?
• Why would anyone refer to the speech/writings of an imaginary man Moses?
• Hebrews 11:22-40, "By faith Joseph, when he was dying, made mention of the exodus of the sons of Israel, and gave orders concerning his bones. By faith Moses, when he was born, was hidden for three months by his parents, because they saw he was a beautiful child; and they were not afraid of the king’s edict. By faith Moses, when he had grown up, refused to be called the son of Pharaoh’s daughter, choosing rather to endure ill-treatment with the people of God than to enjoy the passing pleasures of sin, considering the reproach of Christ greater riches than the treasures of Egypt; for he was looking to the reward. By faith he left Egypt, not fearing the wrath of the king; for he endured, as seeing Him who is unseen. By faith he kept the Passover and the sprinkling of the blood, so that he who destroyed the firstborn would not touch them. By faith they passed through the Red Sea as though they were passing through dry land; and the Egyptians, when they attempted it, were drowned . . . And all these, having gained approval through their faith, did not receive what was promised, because God had provided something better for us, so that apart from us they would not be made perfect."
• Moses - portrayed as a historical man.
• How could an imaginary Moses exemplify faith?
• Why such detailed consistency on how Moses was hidden "three months" if the story about Moses is imaginative? Moses was a baby at that point and was doing nothing to save the Israelites.
• Why mention the real Egyptian Pharaohs and speak at the same time of an imaginary Moses?
• How could an imaginary Moses keep the first real Jewish Passover and motivate succeeding generations to do so also?
• How could an imaginary Moses "gain approval" through his faith?
• How could an imaginary Moses be linked to New Testament Christians ("apart from us they would not be made perfect")?