Under the watch of a HOLY God (Part II)

Now what is the non-textual evidence for the Valley of Achor and Israelite conquest of Ai?

This post was sadly delayed due to Blogger crashing and subsequent need to do a bit of re-writing and re-researching. But with that extra work I do now have extra information on the Valley of Achor. This requires splitting up the original post into at least two parts. Examination of evidence for Ai will be in the second part. I'd better post what I have about Achor forthwith to avoid another crash.


Facts, Traditions, and Widespread Beliefs regarding the Valley of Achor and Ai:

• Geographical Valley of Achor:
• Joshua 7:24-26, "Then Joshua and all Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, the silver, the mantle, the bar of gold, his sons, his daughters, his oxen, his donkeys, his sheep, his tent and all that belonged to him; and they brought them up to the valley of Achor. Joshua said, “Why have you troubled us? The LORD will trouble you this day.” And all Israel stoned them with stones; and they burned them with fire after they had stoned them with stones. They raised over him a great heap of stones that stands to this day, and the LORD turned from the fierceness of His anger. Therefore the name of that place has been called the valley of Achor to this day."
• The valley of Achor lay in hill country
• One should look for reference or sign of a stone heap (not yet discovered to my knowledge)
• The modern name of the valley should relate to the original name of Achor
• Achor - Hebrew for "disturbance" or "trouble"
• Jerusalem.com - The Prat River running along the Wadi Kelt is considered the River Perath named in Jeremiah 13:3-5. Among the springs supplying the River Perath, the Spring of Ein Kelt is associated with the River Kerith belonging to the Kerith Ravine named in 1 Kings 17:3.
• Strong's Concordance - "Perath" in Jeremiah 13:3-5 is also translated as the "Euphrates". The word derives from a root meaning "to break forth" or "rushing"
• Strong's Concordance - "Kerith" in I Kings 17:3 derives from "karath" which means "to cut off" or "cut down".
• Joshua 15:1, 5-8, "Now the lot for the tribe of the sons of Judah according to their families . . . And the border of the north side was from the bay of the sea at the mouth of the Jordan. Then the border went up to Beth-hoglah, and continued on the north of Beth-arabah, and the border went up to the stone of Bohan the son of Reuben. The border went up to Debir from the valley of Achor, and turned northward toward Gilgal which is opposite the ascent of Adummim, which is on the south of the valley; and the border continued to the waters of En-shemesh and it ended at En-rogel. Then the border went up the valley of Ben-hinnom to the slope of the Jebusite on the south (that is, Jerusalem) . . ."

Modern walk from Ein Hajla Spring to Gey Ben Hinom St, Jerusalem. This is the region of Joshua's Judah-Benjamin border, on which the Valley of Achor lay, just south or southwest of Jericho.

• Travel Palestine - The name of Beth Hoglah in Joshua 15 is retained by the modern day Ain Hajla Spring.
• Wikipedia - The modern West Bank settlement of Beit HaAravah is named after the town of Beth Aravah named in Joshua 15, whose general location it shares on the Aravah/Arabah plain. In the 1930s-1940s, Jewish settlers began cultivating the soil of Beit HaAravah (after washing out the salt), making it known for its produce of vegetables and fruit throughout the country (see Hosea 2 verses below).
• Joshua 15 implies that the stone of Bohan lay in the Valley of Achor. Therefore the Valley of Achor lay "above" (likely in altitude) and North-west of Beth-arabah, since the northern boundary of Judah was being described from east to west in Joshua 15. North-west of modern day Beit HaAravah lie Aqabat Jabr and the east entrance to the Wadi Kelt valley.
• Joshua 18:11-20, "Now the lot of the tribe of the sons of Benjamin came up according to their families, and the territory of their lot lay between the sons of Judah and the sons of Joseph. Their border on the north side was from the Jordan, then the border went up to the side of Jericho on the north, and went up through the hill country westward, and it ended at the wilderness of Beth-aven. From there the border continued to Luz, to the side of Luz (that is, Bethel) southward . . . The border extended from there and turned round on the west side southward . . . Then the south side was from the edge of Kiriath-jearim, and the border went westward and went to the fountain of the waters of Nephtoah. The border went down to the edge of the hill which is in the valley of Ben-hinnom, which is in the valley of Rephaim northward; and it went down to the valley of Hinnom, to the slope of the Jebusite southward, and went down to En-rogel. It extended northward and went to En-shemesh and went to Geliloth, which is opposite the ascent of Adummim, and it went down to the stone of Bohan the son of Reuben. It continued to the side in front of the Arabah northward and went down to the Arabah. The border continued to the side of Beth-hoglah northward; and the border ended at the north bay of the Salt Sea, at the south end of the Jordan. This was the south border. Moreover, the Jordan was its border on the east side."
• It is clear that Judah's northern border shared much of Benjamin's southern border.
• Therefore, the Valley of Achor (Joshua 15) lay on the southern side of Benjamin.
• Jericho lay on the northern border of Benjamin.
• Therefore, the Valley of Achor lay south (or south-west) of Jericho.
• Shalom Israel Tours - The Jewish Mitzpe Jericho ("Jericho Lookout") community of 450 families has a clear view of Jericho from the southeast mountains. This community is adjacent to the Wadi Kelt/Nachal Prat nature reserve.

View from Mitzpe Jericho of the Jericho plain (Shalom Israel Tours)

• Isaiah 65:9-10, "'I will bring forth offspring from Jacob,
              And an heir of My mountains from Judah;
              Even My chosen ones shall inherit it,
              And My servants will dwell there.
        'Sharon will be a pasture land for flocks,
              And the valley of Achor a resting place for herds,
              For My people who seek Me.'"
  
• Hosea 2:14-15, "'Therefore, behold, I will allure her,
              Bring her into the wilderness
              And speak kindly to her.
        'Then I will give her her vineyards from there,
              And the valley of Achor as a door of hope.
              And she will sing there as in the days of her youth,
              As in the day when she came up from the land of Egypt.'"
• The Shalom Israel Tours link above already mentioned Israelite settlement in the vicinity of Wadi Kelt (as suggested by Isaiah's "for My people")
• Look for a roadway in the Vally of Achor (Hosea's "door of hope")

Shepherd in the vicinity of the Wadi Kelt (Israel Tour Guide)

• Israel Tour Guide - The Wadi ("valley") Qelt/Kelt and Nahal ("stream bed") Prat run east from Jerusalem to Jericho, where the Nahal Prat runs into the Jordan River. The Nahal Prat is supplied by three springs. Shepherds with their sheep can be seen along the Wadi Kelt/Qelt. Hasmonean period aqueducts enabled cultivation of figs, dates, pomegranates, and citrus up through the early Arab period. Palaces, settlements, monasteries, and an Israelite Iron Age ruin dating to the time of the Israelite kings are also found in the valley.
• Shalom Israel Tours - In the En Prat nature reserve is the Firan Monastery, which is surrounded by cultivated terraces, orchards, and cisterns.
• See the Holy Land - The Wadi Qelt's 35 km winding course provided the route for a large section of a Roman roadway running from Jerusalem to Jericho. St. George's Monastery built in the 5th century into the cliff face of the Wadi Qelt is known for hospitality.

Monastery of St. George built into the cliff face of the Wadi Kelt (See the Holy Land)

 
 . . . Part B to follow.

Fighting against the odds--Jericho.

Within literary context, then, the Biblical account supports a historical Joshua. But the account of Joshua makes some pretty big claims on how God fought for Israel as they entered and conquered Canaan. So those historical claims should be backed up by historical facts and traditions, should they not? Oh boy, that's another big endeavor, partly because Scripture basically records how the Israelites left no survivors in the cities they conquered. So unless the Canaanite peoples had time to send pleas for help prior to overthrow by the Israelites, the only surviving verbal testimony would be from the Israelites--and who trusts the conqueror's account of a conquest? Well . . . perhaps there is additional evidence to consider.

"The Battle of Jericho" as sung by the Morman Tabernacle Choir

Facts, traditions, and widespread beliefs regarding Joshua's conquest of Canaan:

• Etymology of "Canaan":
• Dictionary.com - from Hebrew "Kena'an" referring to either the land between the Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the Mediterranean, or referring to a grandson of Noah by the same name.
• Merriam Webster's Dictionary - from Gr. "Kanaan", which comes from Heb. "Kena'an" referring to the ancient land of Phoenicia and Palestine.
• Jewish Virtual Library - "The name Canaan first appears in documents from the 15^th century B.C.E. and was variously written: Akkadian: Kinani (m), Kinaḫḫu / i, etc.; Egyptian: Knʿn·w and P -knʿn; Ugaritic: Knʿny ("a Canaanite"); Phoenician and Hebrew: Knʿn. Most scholars connect the name with the Hurrian term kinaḫḫu meaning (reddish) purple. Support for this is found in the similarity between the Greek Φοῖνιξ meaning reddish purple and Φοινίκη meaning Phoenicia. Those who derive the name from the Semitic root kn' consider it either a name for the conchiferous snail which yielded purple dye, or a term for the western nations, because the sun set in the west (see also Astour 1965). Since purple cloth was the chief export of Phoenicia, the term Canaan also appears in the sense of merchant (Isa. 23:8; Zeph. 1:11; Prov. 31:24; et al) [emphasis added]"
• Isaiah 23:8-12, "Who has planned this against Tyre, the bestower of crowns, whose merchants were princes, whose traders were the honored of the earth? The LORD of hosts has planned it, to defile the pride of all beauty, to despise all the honored of the earth . . . The LORD has given a command concerning Canaan to demolish its strongholds. He has said, 'You shall exult no more, O crushed virgin daughter of Sidon. Arise, pass over to Cyprus; even there you will find no rest.'"
• Canaanite Giants:
• Anastasi Papyrus - "Amenmope's chariot is on a narrow mountain pass above a ravine in which some four or five cubit (seven foot) tall Shashu are lurking. The road is rough and tangled with vegetation and the Shashu look dangerous and fierce. Amenmope wrecks his rig and has to cut it loose with a knife from some trees it is tangled up in."
• Wisdom Library - The Egyptian Execration texts tells of "Iy aneq"/"Iy'anaq", which appear to correspond to the Biblical Anakim. The Egyptian texts place curses on these Iy aneq and refer to Ashdod as the "city of the giants"

  
                        From Wikipedia "Shasu" article 

• Shasu - An Egyptian carving of Egyptians beating two Shasu spies depicts the Shasu spies as being greater in stature than the Egyptians. While pharaohs were depicted as greater in stature than their "inferior" subjects (History World), it is odd that enemy foreigners would be shown as greater in stature than Egyptians, unless this reflected reality.
• ABC.net - Ancient Egyptians had an average height of 5.1 ft, which would have been short compared to the 7 ft tall Shashu.
• Jewish Encyclopedia - Jewish people on average are ~5.3 ft in height, which would have been short compared to "short giants" of just 7 ft like the Canaanite Shashu described by the Egyptians.
• Deuteronomy 9:1-3, "[Moses instructing the Israelites about to cross the Jordan into Canaan] 'Hear, O Israel! You are crossing over the Jordan today to go in to dispossess nations greater and mightier than you, great cities fortified to heaven, a people great and tall, the sons of the Anakim, whom you know and of whom you have heard it said, "Who can stand before the sons of Anak?" Know therefore today that it is the LORD your God who is crossing over before you as a consuming fire. He will destroy them and He will subdue them before you, so that you may drive them out and destroy them quickly, just as the LORD has spoken to you.'"
• Conquest of Jericho:

• Jewish Virtual Library - summary of the history of Jericho
• Jewish Magazine - history of Jericho from a Jewish perspective.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site - Tel e-Sultan, or ancient Jericho, is considered both the oldest and the lowest lying town on Earth, resting at 258 m below sea level. In the Middle Bronze Age around 1580 B.C., the Canaanite city-state of Tel e-Sultan and its mud-brick wall at that time were violently destroyed by fire. Evidence of nomadic invasion also exists, but according to the UNESCO summary the nomadic invasion dates one to two centuries prior to the fire. After the fire, Tel e-Sultan remained largely unsettled during the Late Bronze Age, being instead resettled in the later Iron Age.
• Creation.com - article which contains many quotes from archaeologists Garstang, Kenyon, and Pritchard from their excavations at ancient Jericho and Gibeon. Dates given are as follows: Early Bronze Age - third millenium B.C., Middle Bronze Age - 2000-1550 B.C., and Late Bronze Age - 1550-1200 B.C. I do not agree with the dating conclusion regarding the time of Joshua in this article, but the quotes from archaeologists are quite interesting:
• "'Traces of intense fire are plain to see, including reddened masses of brick, cracked stones, charred timber and ashes. Houses alongside the wall were found burnt to the ground, their roofs fallen upon the domestic pottery within'" (Garstang)
• "'On a brick ledge in a corner of this room we found the family provision of dates, barley, oats, olives, an onion and peppercorns, all charred but unmistakable; while a little store of bread, together with a quantity of unbaked dough which had been laid aside to serve as leaven for the morrow’s baking, told plainly the same tale of a people cut off in full activity.'" (Garstang)
• "'One gets used to burnt layers in excavations of this kind, for it was the usual fate of houses and cities to perish by fire; but this was no ordinary burning. The layer of ashes was so thick and the signs of intense heat so vivid, that it gave the impression of having been contrived, that fuel had been added to the fire.'" (Garstang)
• "We have nowhere been able to prove the survival of the walls of the Late Bronze Age, that is to say, of the period of Joshua. This is at variance with Professor Garstang’s conclusions. He ascribed two of the lines of walls which encircle the summit to the Late Bronze Age. But everywhere that we examined them it was clear that they must belong to the Early Bronze.' Kenyon concluded that an earthquake had brought the walls down. 'The face of the wall can be seen fallen outwards from the stone foundations.'" (Kenyon)
• "'As our detailed knowledge of Palestinian archaeology has gradually increased over the past thirty years or so, it has become apparent that there was a very sharp break between the Early Bronze Age of the third millenium and the Middle Bronze Age of the first half of the second. Common everyday pots are the most sensitive barometer of a drastic change in population. There is virtually no continuity in pottery between the two periods'" (Kenyon)
• "'These relics of the Middle Bronze I people seem to indicate a fresh migration into the town of a nomadic people who brought with them an entirely new tradition in pottery forms and new customs in burial practices. They may have come into Palestine from the desert at the crossing of the Jordan near Jericho and may then have pushed on to settle eventually at places such as Gibeon, Tell el-Ajjul and Lachish, where tombs of this distinctive type have been found.'" (Pritchard)
• Concerning the invading "nomads": "'Since there is this interval before houses appear, they must have lived in tents or very slight structures, thus providing clear evidence of their nomadic origin. Though they lived on the tell [Tel e-Sultan], they were not really interested in it as a town. Their occupation spread right down the slopes, and they never built themselves a town wall.'" (Kenyon)
• New York Times - Archaeologist Dr. Bryant Wood dated this great burning of Jericho to the Late Bronze Age, or ~1400 BC, contradicting Kathleen Kenyon's earlier work.
• "A study of ceramic remnants, royal scarabs, carbon-14 dating, seismic activity in the region and even some ruins of tumbled walls produced what is being called impressive evidence that the fortified city was destroyed in the Late Bronze Age, about 1400 B.C. . . . The prevailing view among scholars has been that the city was destroyed some 150 years earlier . . . [as in the UNESCO write-up]"
• "A three-foot layer of ash, containing many pottery fragments and mud bricks from a wall, was found at the site, well preserved because it was sealed by sediments that accumulated over the years the destroyed city lay unoccupied. The charred fragments have been dated at 1410 B.C., plus or minus 40 years [So taking 1410 B.C. compared to UNESCO's 1580 B.C. the median date is ~1495 B.C.--this approximation compares pretty well with early historians dating of the Exodus at 1550 B.C. as related in my blog post "A Nation Redeemed. (Part I)" on July 10th, 2016, remembering that the Exodus was followed by 40 years wandering in the wilderness]. Finally, several Egyptian scarabs, or amulets, found in tombs at Jericho had inscriptions placing them in the same period."
• "'The presence of these grain stores in the destroyed city is entirely consistent with the biblical account,' Dr. Wood wrote. 'The city did not fall as a result of a starvation siege, as was so common in ancient times. Instead, the Bible tells us Jericho was destroyed after but seven days.'"
• Joshua 6:1-5, "Now Jericho was tightly shut because of the sons of Israel; no one went out and no one came in. The LORD said to Joshua, 'See, I have given Jericho into your hand, with its king and the valiant warriors . . . on the seventh day you shall march around the city seven times, and the priests shall blow the trumpets. It shall be that when they make a long blast with the ram’s horn, and when you hear the sound of the trumpet, all the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city will fall down flat, and the people will go up every man straight ahead."
• Joshua 6:16-21, "Joshua said to the people, 'Shout! For the LORD has given you the city. The city shall be under the ban, it and all that is in it belongs to the LORD; only Rahab the harlot and all who are with her in the house shall live, because she hid the messengers whom we sent' . . . and the wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city, every man straight ahead, and they took the city. They utterly destroyed everything in the city, both man and woman, young and old, and ox and sheep and donkey, with the edge of the sword.."
• Joshua 6:26-27, "Then Joshua made them take an oath at that time, saying, 'Cursed before the LORD is the man who rises up and builds this city Jericho; with the loss of his firstborn he shall lay its foundation, and with the loss of his youngest son he shall set up its gates.' So the LORD was with Joshua, and his fame was in all the land."
• Joshua 8:1-28, "Now the LORD said to Joshua, 'Do not fear or be dismayed. Take all the people of war with you and arise, go up to Ai; see, I have given into your hand the king of Ai, his people, his city, and his land. You shall do to Ai and its king just as you did to Jericho and its king; you shall take only its spoil and its cattle as plunder for yourselves. Set an ambush for the city behind it.' So Joshua rose with all the people of war to go up to Ai . . . Israel took only the cattle and the spoil of that city as plunder for themselves, according to the word of the LORD which He had commanded Joshua. So Joshua burned Ai and made it a heap forever, a desolation until this day."
• To be continued . . .

 

A Nation Redeemed. (Part II)

The next installment on the Exodus follows. Since this is a highly contested account in both Christian and secular circles, it seems important to examine it in detail. Might it be contested due to failure to carefully read the Exodus account and parallel accounts in Scripture? Or is it being contested because it portrays supernatural events?


Facts, customs, and widespread beliefs:

• Hebrew language links to Ancient Egyptian:
• Egyptologists' Electronic Forum - Ancient Egyptian words are denoted AE. Scroll down and see entries: [A] 2, 11, 12, 14, 18.
• Menachem Mendel - Blog written by Michael Pitkowsky, who is the Rabbinics Curriculum Coordinator at the Academy for Jewish Religion. Pitkowsky presents recent scholarship associating many Hebrew words with Egyptian roots.
• Genesis 15:12-16 (NIV), "As the sun was setting, Abram fell into a deep sleep, and a thick and dreadful darkness came over him. Then the Lord said to him, 'Know for certain that for four hundred years your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own and that they will be enslaved and mistreated there. But I will punish the nation they serve as slaves, and afterward they will come out with great possessions. You, however, will go to your ancestors in peace and be buried at a good old age. In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here [Four generations certainly allows time to become fluent in Egyptian and begin adopting words into Hebrew] . . .'"
• Genesis 41:46-52, "Joseph was thirty years old when he entered the service of Pharaoh [likely requiring understanding of Egyptian] king of Egypt. And Joseph went out from Pharaoh’s presence and traveled throughout Egypt . . . Before the years of famine came, two sons were born to Joseph by Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On [Joseph must have spoken Egyptian with his wife]."
• Genesis 42:18-23, "On the third day, Joseph said to them, 'Do this and you will live, for I fear God: If you are honest men, let one of your brothers stay here in prison, while the rest of you go and take grain back for your starving households. But you must bring your youngest brother to me, so that your words may be verified and that you may not die.' This they proceeded to do. They said to one another, 'Surely we are being punished because of our brother. We saw how distressed he was when he pleaded with us for his life, but we would not listen; that’s why this distress has come on us.' Reuben replied, 'Didn’t I tell you not to sin against the boy? But you wouldn’t listen! Now we must give an accounting for his blood.' They did not realize that Joseph could understand them, since he was using an interpreter [implying that Joseph now fluently spoke Egyptian, as he spoke Egyptian to the interpreter]."

• Chariots in Egypt around B.C. 1550:
• Egyptian tourist site - Introduction of chariot technology in Egypt dated to Asiatic Hyksos arrival.
• Ancient History Encyclopedia - Hyksos charioteers introduced the chariot to Egypt around 1650 B.C., when their dynasty in Northern Egypt was established.
• Exodus 14:5-9, "When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, Pharaoh and his servants had a change of heart toward the people, and they said, 'What is this we have done, that we have let Israel go from serving us?' So he made his chariot ready and took his people with him; and he took six hundred select chariots, and all the other chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them. The LORD hardened the heart of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and he chased after the sons of Israel as the sons of Israel were going out boldly. Then the Egyptians chased after them with all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, his horsemen and his army, and they overtook them camping by the sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, in front of Baal-zephon."

• Story and name of Moses:
• An Islamic website - Names Moses as Musa, and relates a story closely paralleling Scripture.
• Another Islamic website - Again names Moses as Musa, and relates a story paralleling Scripture.
• Roman Historian Tacitus - Named Moses as Moyses in his 5th book of Historiae. See third section in linked page. Some parallels to Scripture are evident in Tacitus' story.
• Torah.org - Names Moses as Moshe under Judaism and affirms the historicity of Moshe's life.
• Greek Historian Diodorus Siculus - Identified Moses as the leader of the people who left Egypt to settle in Judaea, as well as the one who gave this people their laws and priesthood.
• Egyptologists' Electronic Forum - Scroll down to entry [A] 11 to see Egyptian origin of the name "Moses".
• Egyptian Historian Manetho:
• According to Josephus, Manetho declares that the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt during the time of Pharaoh Tuthmosis, of the 18th Dynasty. 
• According to George Syncellus, who was commenting on Julius Africanus' preservation of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Moses and Israel's departure from Egypt should be placed during the reign of Pharaoh Amos, the first king of the 18th Dynasty.
• Compare to Exodus 1-14

• Hebrew Passover:
• Judaism 101 - Provides extensive details on the Passover meal, noting that the Passover is still observed in some form by 67% of Jews to this day.
• Reform Judaism - Similar description of the Passover meal, noting that the first Passover was associated with the Exodus from Egypt. The Passover was also one of the three feasts for which the Israelite people congregated, and yet seek to congregate, in Jerusalem.
• Exodus 12:1-13, "Now the LORD said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, 'This month shall be the beginning of months for you; it is to be the first month of the year to you. Speak to all the congregation of Israel, saying, "On the tenth of this month they are each one to take a lamb for themselves, according to their fathers’ households, a lamb for each household . . . You shall keep it until the fourteenth day of the same month, then the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel is to kill it at twilight. Moreover, they shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and on the lintel of the houses in which they eat it. They shall eat the flesh that same night, roasted with fire, and they shall eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. Do not eat any of it raw or boiled at all with water, but rather roasted with fire, both its head and its legs along with its entrails. And you shall not leave any of it over until morning, but whatever is left of it until morning, you shall burn with fire. Now you shall eat it in this manner: with your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it in haste—it is the LORD’S Passover. For I will go through the land of Egypt on that night, and will strike down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments—I am the LORD. The blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you live; and when I see the blood I will pass over you, and no plague will befall you to destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt. Now this day will be a memorial to you, and you shall celebrate it as a feast to the LORD; throughout your generations you are to celebrate it as a permanent ordinance."'" 

• Hebrew calendar beginning with Passover month:
• Reform Judaism - According to the Jewish calendar, Passover is observed in the month of Nissan, the first month.
• General Source - Scroll down to months section. Nissan is the first month and is the month of Passover.
• Exodus 12:1-3, "Now the LORD said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, 'This month shall be the beginning of months for you; it is to be the first month of the year to you. Speak to all the congregation of Israel, saying, "On the tenth of this month they are each one to take a lamb for themselves . . ."'"

• Enmity between Israel and Egypt enduring into modern times:
• The Middle East Quarterly - Modern-day wars and tensions between Egypt and Israel.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Egyptian-Isreali conflict example in six-day war between Israel and its Egyptian-led Arab coalition in 1967. 
• Jerusalem Post - Egyptian study showed that the Egyptian people view Israel as the most hostile nation toward them (Egyptian public opinion research site - poll referenced in Jerusalem Post article is 3rd from top on web page).
• Exodus 1:8-11, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. He said to his people, 'Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.' So they appointed taskmasters over them to afflict them with hard labor. And they built for Pharaoh storage cities, Pithom and Raamses."
• Exodus 14:28-30, "The waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, even Pharaoh’s entire army that had gone into the sea after them; not even one of them remained. But the sons of Israel walked on dry land through the midst of the sea, and the waters were like a wall to them on their right hand and on their left. Thus the LORD saved Israel that day from the hand of the Egyptians, and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore." 

• Red Sea and the Sinai wilderness relative to Goshen, Egypt:
• Red Sea:
• Islamic viewpoint - Scroll down to Part 9. The Red Sea is considered to be an actual portion of the Red Sea, with deep water, and not marshland.
• Jewish viewpoint -  Jewish interpretation of the Torah holds the Red Sea to name a body of deep water also, not merely marshland or a flood-plain.
• Exodus 13:17-18, "Now when Pharaoh had let the people go, God did not lead them by the way of the land of the Philistines, even though it was near; for God said, 'The people might change their minds when they see war, and return to Egypt.' Hence God led the people around by the way of the wilderness to the Red Sea; and the sons of Israel went up in martial array from the land of Egypt."
• Exodus 14:26-29, "Then the LORD said to Moses, 'Stretch out your hand over the sea so that the waters may come back over the Egyptians, over their chariots and their horsemen.' So Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the sea returned to its normal state at daybreak, while the Egyptians were fleeing right into it; then the LORD overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea. The waters returned and covered the chariots and the horsemen, even Pharaoh’s entire army that had gone into the sea after them; not even one of them remained. But the sons of Israel walked on dry land through the midst of the sea, and the waters were like a wall to them on their right hand and on their left."

• Mount Sinai/Horeb:
• Islamic viewpoint - Both the Islamic Quran and the Old Testament require that Horeb be located in or near the land of Midian (the people of Moses' father-in-law), which corresponds to modern-day Saudi Arabia. Jabal al Lawz is one suggested candidate mountain in Saudi Arabia.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Midianites were nomadic people believed to have lived east of the Gulf of Aqaba in modern-day Saudi Arabia.
• Jabal al Lawz - A mountain with a visibly darkened peak, as seen below:

• Exodus 3:1-2, "Now Moses was pasturing the flock of Jethro his father-in-law, the priest of Midian; and he led the flock to the west side of the wilderness and came to Horeb, the mountain of God. The angel of the LORD appeared to him in a blazing fire from the midst of a bush; and he looked, and behold, the bush was burning with fire, yet the bush was not consumed."
• Exodus 19:17-20, "And Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain. Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke because the LORD descended upon it in fire; and its smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked violently. When the sound of the trumpet grew louder and louder, Moses spoke and God answered him with thunder. The LORD came down on Mount Sinai, to the top of the mountain; and the LORD called Moses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up."
• II Chron. 5:10, "There was nothing in the ark except the two tablets which Moses put there at Horeb, where the LORD made a covenant with the sons of Israel, when they came out of Egypt."
• Psalm 106:19-22, "They made a calf in Horeb
              And worshiped a molten image.
        Thus they exchanged their glory
              For the image of an ox that eats grass.
        They forgot God their Savior,
              Who had done great things in Egypt,
        Wonders in the land of Ham
              And awesome things by the Red Sea."           

• Split rock in the wilderness:
• Al Naslaa, Tayma petroglyph - Lone rock in Saudi Arabia at Tayma with very uniform split running through middle, visibly eroded base, and clear trace of nomadic presence. 
• Geography of modern day route from Cairo to Tayma (see split rock Al Naslaa above):

Google Maps modern day route from Cairo, Egypt to split rock at Tayma, Saudi Arabia

• Psalm 78:13-18, "He divided the sea and caused them to
        pass through,
              And He made the waters stand up like a heap.
        Then He led them with the cloud by day
              And all the night with a light of fire.
        He split the rocks in the wilderness
              And gave them abundant drink like the ocean
              depths.
        He brought forth streams also from the rock
              And caused waters to run down like rivers.
        Yet they still continued to sin against Him,
              To rebel against the Most High in the desert.
        And in their heart they put God to the test
              By asking food according to their desire."

• Rock Art in Saudi Arabia:
• Cattle petroglyphs - Artistic work is very similar to that seen in ancient Egypt. The Saudi petroglyphs may date to sometime in the 2nd millenium B.C.
• Exodus 12:37-39, "Now the sons of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, aside from children. A mixed multitude also went up with them, along with flocks and herds, a very large number of livestock. They baked the dough which they had brought out of Egypt into cakes of unleavened bread. For it had not become leavened, since they were driven out of Egypt and could not delay, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves."
• Sheep petroglyphs - Awassi, fat-tailed sheep drawn on surfaces of rocks were bred and domesticated prior to 2000 B.C. Their fat tail allows them to endure arid climates in Africa, the Middle East, and other regions (see fao.org website for more information).
• Leviticus 6:6-7, "Then he shall bring to the priest his guilt offering to the LORD, a ram without defect from the flock, according to your valuation, for a guilt offering, and the priest shall make atonement for him before the LORD, and he will be forgiven for any one of the things which he may have done to incur guilt."
• Leviticus 7:2-3, "'In the place where they slay the burnt offering they are to slay the guilt offering, and he shall sprinkle its blood around on the altar. Then he shall offer from it all its fat: the fat tail and the fat that covers the entrails . . .'" 

Where, O where is the "I didn't know!" clause . . .

Gen. 2:15-17, "Then the LORD God took the man and put him into the garden of Eden to cultivate it and keep it. The LORD God commanded the man, saying, 'From any tree of the garden you may eat freely; but from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat from it you will surely die.'”

• "Eden": Hebrew ‘ê-ḏen (Strong's 5731) - after the Fall in Gen. 3, the exact word reappears in: Gen. 4:16, where Cain "settled in the land of Nod, east of Eden."; Ezekiel 31:9-18, where Assyria is described as a tree excelling in beauty beyond all the trees in the garden of Eden; and Joel 2:3, where a great multitude is advancing on Zion, with the land before them appearing as Eden, while they leave behind them desolate wilderness.

• "cultivate": Hebrew lə-‘ā-ḇə-ḏāh (Strong's 5647) - only occurrence of exact word in Scripture. Compare to la-‘ă-ḇōḏ  in the post "Contradictory Creation account? (Gen. 2:5-7)".

• 1st "eat": Hebrew tō-ḵêl (Strong's 398) - Exact word occurs a total of 17 times in Scripture. Outside of Genesis the word is translated 9 out of 16 times as eating food for one's physical body. The 7 exceptions are: devouring/consuming fire in II Sam. 22:9, Job 31:12, Psalm 18:8 (which quotes II Sam. 22:9), and Psalm 50:3; "you shall eat of the fruit of your hands" in Psalm 128:2; "does not eat the bread of idleness" in Proverbs 31:27; "For wickedness burns like a fire; It consumes briars and thorns" in Isaiah 9:18.

[1/10/2016 update:

• 2nd "eat": Hebrew ṯō-ḵal (Strong's 398) - Out the 35 occurrences in Scripture, the word 29 times refers to eating food for physical nourishment. The 6 exceptions are: ". . . And dust you will eat all the days of your life;" (Gen. 3:14), ". . . the ashes [to] which the fire reduces the burnt offering . . ." (Lev. 6:10), and a devouring sword (Deut. 32:42, 2 Samuel 2:26, 2 Samuel 11:25, and Nahum 2:13).

• 3rd "eat": Hebrew ’ă-ḵā-lə-ḵā (Strong's 398) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture.

]

• "knowledge": Hebrew had-da-‘aṯ (Strong's 1847) - Seven total occurrences of exact word in Scripture. Outside of the 2 occurrences in Genesis 2, where it refers to the tree of knowledge of good and evil, the word is translated as: skill in craftmanship (I Kings 7:14), "what it means to know [God]" (Jer. 22:16), "'many will go back and forth, and knowledge will increase.'" (Daniel 12:4), and knowledge of God and/or His laws (Hosea 4:6--had-da-‘aṯ appears twice).

• "good": Hebrew ṭō-wḇ (Strong's 2896) - Exact word occurs 271 times in Scripture. The only other time the word is associated with the same word for evil is in reference to little children with no knowledge of good or evil (Deut. 1:39).

•  "evil": Hebrew wā-rā‘ (Strong's 7451) - Exact word occurs 7 times in Scripture. Outside of the Genesis Fall of Man passage, the word is translated: Judah's fear that evil (or death) will befall his father Jacob if his youngest brother Benjamin does not return from Egypt (Gen. 44:34), the above Deut. 1:39 passage, and "Break the arm of the wicked and the evildoer . . ." (Psalm 10:15).

• "day": Hebrew bə-yō-wm (Strong's 3117) - Not necessarily a specific, 24-hour day. The word is also used to refer to a longer period of time, a recurring sabbath day, the 1st or another day of a month, "when", etc. See post "Just 31 verses until Creation climax--and then?".

• "die": Hebrew tā-mūṯ (Strong's 4191) - Exact word occurs 33 times in Scripture. The word predominantly refers to physical death meted out as punishment, except in: Job 12:2, "with you wisdom will die"; Isaiah 66:24, "For their worm will not die . . ."; Jer. 34:5, "You [King Zedekiah of Judah] will die in peace . . ."; and perhaps Zechariah 11:9, "What is to die, let it die . . ."

We see physical death all around us. How could mankind inherit death, and not inherit an understanding of what is good and what is evil? The two seem inseparable to me.

Contradictory Creation account? (Gen. 2:8-14)

Gen. 2:8-9, "The LORD God planted a garden toward the east, in Eden; and there He placed the man whom He had formed. Out of the ground the LORD God caused to grow every tree that is pleasing to the sight and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil."

• "Eden": Hebrew bə·‘ê·ḏen (Strong's 5731) - First of 2 occurrences of the exact word in Scripture. The word appears again in Ezekiel 28:12-13, "'Son of man, take up a lamentation over the king of Tyre and say to him, "Thus says the Lord GOD, 'You had the seal of perfection, Full of wisdom and perfect in beauty. You were in Eden, the garden of God; Every precious stone was your covering . . .'"'"

• "ground": Hebrew hā-’ă-ḏā-māh (Strong's 127) - Exact word first occurs in Gen. 1:25. This word is used to name: the same ground of "everything that creeps on the ground" (Gen. 1:25); the ground man cultivates (Gen. 2:5); the ground watered by the pre-rain mist (Gen. 2:6); the ground from which man was formed (Gen. 2:7); the ground cursed with toil, thorns, and thistles (Gen. 3:17-18)--whenever the word is associated with plants, it refers to the agriculturally tilled or cultivated ground surface.

Gen. 2:10-14, "Now a river flowed out of Eden to water the garden; and from there it divided and became four rivers. The name of the first is Pishon; it flows around the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold. The gold of that land is good; the bdellium and the onyx stone are there. The name of the second river is Gihon; it flows around the whole land of Cush. The name of the third river is Tigris; it flows east of Assyria. And the fourth river is the Euphrates."

• "Eden": Hebrew mê-‘ê-ḏen (Strong's 5731) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture.

• "Pishon": Hebrew pî-šō-wn (Strong's 6376) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture.

• "Havilah": Hebrew ha-ḥă-wî-lāh (Strong's 2341) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture. Variations on the root word reappear as the name of a son of Cush (Gen. 10:7 & I Chron. 1:9), a son of Joktan (Gen. 10:29 & I Chron. 1:23), and a boundary of the territory occupied by Ishmael's sons east of Egypt ("from Havilah to Shur"--Gen. 25:18) and the later territory of the Amalekites ("from Havilah as you go to Shur"--I Samuel 15:7).

• "Gihon": Hebrew gî-ḥō-wn (Strong's 1521) - Root word means, "a bursting forth". First occurrence of exact word in Genesis. The word later appears to name a spring near Jerusalem at the annointing of Solomon (I Kings 1:33), and during the reign of King Hezekiah (II Chron. 32:30)

• "Cush": Hebrew kūš (Strong's 3568) - First occurrence of this exact word. The word reappears as the name of the son of Ham (Noah's grandson), the king of Cush, and predominently as the land of Cush or Ethiopia (a real land in Esther 1:1 and 8:9).

• "Tigris": Hebrew ḥid-de-qel (Strong's 2313) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture. A variation on the root word reappears in Daniel 10:4 to name a large river in Persia.

• "Assyria": Hebrew ’aš-šūr (Strong's 804) - First occurrence of exact word. The word reappears to name the land of the city of Ninevah (Gen. 10:11), and later the country of Assyria which carried Northern Israel away into captivity and afflicted Judah.

•  "Euphrates": Hebrew p̄ə-rāṯ (Strong's 6578) - Only occurrence of exact word in Scripture. Variations on the root word later refer to: the river lying along the promised Eastern boundary of Israel (Joshua 1:4); and the river running by Carchemish, where King Josiah was wounded to death as he went out to engage Pharaoh Neco of Egypt who was coming up against the king of Assyria (II Kings 23:29 & II Chron. 35:20-23).

Contradictory Creation account? (Gen. 2:5-7)

Gen. 2:5-6, "Now no shrub of the field was yet in the earth, and no plant of the field had yet sprouted, for the LORD God had not sent rain upon the earth, and there was no man to cultivate the ground. But a mist used to rise from the earth and water the whole surface of the ground."

• "Now . . . yet": Hebrew ṭe-rem (Strong's 2962) - exact word is translated as "before", "now before", or "that before" 9 out of 14 times in the NASB; can also mean "ere" or "not yet"; the word comes from a root word meaning to interrupt or suspend; the word is first used in Gen. 2:5--all remaining NAS translations in Genesis (Gen. 19:4, 24:15, and 24:45) read as "Before . . .", with the word placed at the beginning of the sentence.

• "of the field": Hebrew haś-śā-ḏeh (Strong's 7704) - when associated with plant(s) refers to agricultural field (25 times out of 131 total instances of the word); this excludes instances of association with plants in II Kings 4:39, Psalm 103:15, Isaiah 40:6 (which appears to quote Psalm 103:15), Isaiah 55:12 (prophecy), Ezekiel 17:24 (prophecy), and Ezekiel 31:4 (prophecy).

• "to cultivate": Hebrew la-‘ă-ḇōḏ (Strong's 5647) - means to work or serve; the only other translation as to "cultivate" or "till" in the NAS, KJV, and INT is in Gen. 3:23, "therefore the LORD God sent him out from the garden of Eden, to cultivate the ground from which he was taken."

Gen. 2:7, "Then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being."

• "Then . . . formed": Hebrew way-yî-ṣer (Strong's 3335) - formed/fashioned by human hands (i.e. by a potter or wood-carver), or formed/fashioned by God; the exact word is used only twice, here in Gen. 2:7 and in Gen. 2:19.

• "and breathed": Hebrew way-yip-paḥ (Strong's 5301) - means to breathe or blow; the exact word only occurs in this verse, Gen. 2:7.

• "the breath": Hebrew niš-maṯ (Strong's 5397) - only three other instances of exact word: Gen. 7:22, "breath of the spirit of life" (Noah's flood); Prov. 20:27, "The spirit of man is the lamp of the LORD"; Isaiah 30:33, " . . . The breath of the LORD, like a torrent of brimstone, sets it afire."

• "of life": Hebrew ḥay-yîm (Strong's 2416) - exact word first occurs in Gen. 2:7; the word's following occurrences in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, I Samuel, I Kings, II Kings, and II Chronicles all refer to either physical aliveness, physically dwelling in a land, flowing water, or the living God. 

Set off by the transitional word ṭe-rem, these verses appear to jump back to the sixth day, similar to a literary flashback. The chronologizing of passing days with morning and evening is no longer seen in the text. Instead, one sees a much more detailed picture of God at work. 

Just 31 verses to Creation climax--and then?

Immediate Context:

Gen. 1:31-2:3, "31) God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day. 1) Thus the heavens and the earth were completed, and all their hosts. 2) By the seventh day God completed His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done. 3) Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made.

• ‘ā-śāh (Strong's 6213) - Gen. 1:31, Gen. 2:2--Gen. 1:31 is the first occurrence of this exact word; see below for definition

• la-‘ă-śō-wṯ (Strong's 6213) - Gen. 2:3--first occurrence of this exact word in Genesis; see below for definition

Focus Verse:

Gen. 2:4, "This is the account of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made earth and heaven."

• "account": Hebrew ṯō-wl-ḏō-wṯ (Strong's 8435) - genealogical succession or begettings (see the Genesis geneologies: Gen. 5:1, 6:9, 10:1, etc.)

• "of the heavens": Hebrew haš-šā-ma-yim (Strong's 8064) - apparently starry heavens when unaccompanied by "expanse" (see post "Are there multiple 'heavens'?")

• "and the earth": Hebrew wə-hā-’ā-reṣ (Strong's 776) - apparently means the whole earth (see post "Whoah (slow down) . . . double-check the Hebrew.")

• "when they were created": Hebrew bə-hib-bā-rə-’ām (Strong's 1254) - only occurrence for exact word; from root word bā-rā (Strong's 1254), meaning to shape or create (heaven & earth, Gen. 1:1; man, Gen. 1:27)

• "in the day that": Hebrew bə-yō-wm (Strong's 3117) - same word as used for the sun governing the day and the 7th day of creation's completion (see post "Day, night, morning, and evening--here comes controversy . . . ")

[1/2/2016

First occurrence of exact word in Genesis. Remaining occurrences of exact word in Genesis are translated "in the day", ". . . in time", "on the day". Genesis usage is illustrated in Gen. 2:17 (God's injunction about the "tree of the knowledge of good and evil"), Gen. 21:8 (". . . Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned."), and Gen. 35:3 (". . . I [Jacob] will make an alter there to God, who answered me in the day of my distress").           ]

• "made": Hebrew ‘ă-śō-wṯ (Strong's 6213) - only occurrence of exact word in Genesis--to accomplish; do or make (doing right or wrong, "writing" in Eccl 12:12, or "produced" in Isaiah 7:22)

• "earth": Hebrew ’e-reṣ (Strong's 776) - apparently dry land (see post "Whoah (slow down) . . . double-check the Hebrew.")

• "and heaven": Hebrew wə-šā-mā-yim (Strong's 8064) - only occurrence in Genesis; same word as in Isaiah 40:12, where it says that God has "marked off the heavens by the span" (where a "span" is the width of a man's spread hand from the thumb-tip to the tip of the little finger). 

I think the coming verses of Genesis might be a little clearer if Genesis 2:1-4 were included in Genesis 1.

Day, night, morning, and evening--here comes controversy . . .

More English to Hebrew to Genesis:

"Day" - yō-wm, hay-yō-wm, ū-lə-yā-mîm, and bay-yō-wm

• yō-wm (Strong's 3117) - in order of priority, it can mean day rather than night, a day noted by morning and evening, the day of the Lord, or a longer period of time

Gen. 1:5, "God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day."

Gen. 1:8, "God called the expanse heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day."

Gen. 1:13, "There was evening and there was morning, a third day."

Gen. 1:19, "There was evening and there was morning, a fourth day."

Gen. 1:23, "There was evening and there was morning, a fifth day."

Gen. 1:31, "God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day."

Gen. 2:2-3, "By the seventh day God completed His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done. Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made."

• hay-yō-wm (Strong's 3117) - same root word as yō-wm

Gen. 1:14, " . . . 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years;'"

Gen. 1:16, "God made the two great lights, the greater light to govern the day, and the lesser light to govern the night; He made the stars also."

• ū-lə-yā-mîm (Strong's 3117) - same root word as yō-wm

Gen. 1:14, " . . . 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years;'"

• bay-yō-wm (Strong's 3117) - same root word as yō-wm

Gen. 1:18, "and to govern the day and the night, and to separate the light from the darkness; and God saw that it was good."

Gen. 2:2-3, "By the seventh day God completed His work which He had done, and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had done. Then God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made."

"Night" - lā-yə-lāh, hal-lā-yə-lāh, and ū-ḇal-lay-lāh

• lā-yə-lāh (Strong's 3915) -  in order of priority, it can mean dark night (as opposed to day), or a figurative night

Gen. 1:5, "God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day."

• hal-lā-yə-lāh (Strong's 3915) - same root word as lā-yə-lāh

Gen. 1:14, " . . . 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years;'"

Gen. 1:16, "God made the two great lights, the greater light to govern the day, and the lesser light to govern the night; He made the stars also."

• ū-ḇal-lay-lāh (Strong's 3915) - same root word as lā-yə-lāh

Gen. 1:18, "and to govern the day and the night, and to separate the light from the darkness; and God saw that it was good."

"Morning" - ḇō-qer

• ḇō-qer (Strong's 1242) - in order of priority, it can mean end of night/dawn/sunrise, or bright joy

Gen. 1:5, "God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day."

Gen. 1:8, "God called the expanse heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day."

Gen. 1:13, "There was evening and there was morning, a third day."

Gen. 1:19, "There was evening and there was morning, a fourth day."

Gen. 1:23, "There was evening and there was morning, a fifth day."

Gen. 1:31, "God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day."

"Evening" - ‘e-reḇ

• ‘e-reḇ (Strong's 6153) - means sunset/onset of darkness

Gen. 1:5, "God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And there was evening and there was morning, one day."

Gen. 1:8, "God called the expanse heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day."

Gen. 1:13, "There was evening and there was morning, a third day."

Gen. 1:19, "There was evening and there was morning, a fourth day."

Gen. 1:23, "There was evening and there was morning, a fifth day."

Gen. 1:31, "God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day."

I know this was really long, but these words seemed important to group together.

Are there multiple "heavens"?

English to Hebrew to Genesis:

"Heaven" - haš-šā-ma-yim, and šā-mā-yim

• haš-šā-ma-yim (Strong's 8064) - can mean the starry heavens, sky, or abode of God

Gen. 1:1, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth."

Gen. 1:9, "Then God said, 'Let the waters below the heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear'; and it was so."

Gen. 1:14, "Then God said, 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years;'"

Gen. 1:20, " . . . 'Let the waters teem with swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth in the open expanse of the heavens.'"

Gen. 1:26, "'Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and over all the earth . . .'"

• šā-mā-yim (Strong's 8064) -  same root word as "haš·šā·ma·yim"

Gen. 1:8, "God called the expanse heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day.

"Expanse" - rā-qî-a‘, hā-rā-qî-a‘, lā-rā-qî-a‘, and bir-qî-a‘

• rā-qî-a‘ (Strong's 7549) - can mean a general expanse/support to God's throne or a firmament supporting waters above

Gen. 1:6, " . . . 'Let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.'"

Gen. 1:20, " . . . 'Let the waters teem with swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth in the open expanse of the heavens.'"

•  hā-rā-qî-a‘ (Strong's 7549) - same root word as "rā-qî-a‘"

Gen. 1:7, "God made the expanse, and separated the waters which were below the expanse from the waters which were above the expanse; and it was so."

•  lā-rā-qî-a‘ (Strong's 7549) - same root word as "rā-qî-a‘"

Gen. 1:7, "God made the expanse, and separated the waters which were below the expanse from the waters which were above the expanse; and it was so."

Gen. 1:8, "God called the expanse heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day."

•  bir-qî-a‘ (Strong's 7549) - same root word as "rā-qî-a‘"

Gen. 1:14, " . . . 'Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night' . . ."

I'm beginning to be impressed that English doesn't do full justice to the Hebrew.

Whoah (slow down) . . . double-check the Hebrew.

Yes, that may have seemed a pretty quick write-up (it actually took hours). But I do need to check whether some of those thoughts on Gen. 1:1-30 were stretching the Hebrew meaning.

English to Hebrew to Genesis:

"Earth" - hā-’ā-reṣ, wə-hā-’ā-reṣ, ’e-reṣ, bā-’ā-reṣ, hā-’ă-ḏā-māh

• hā-’ā-reṣ (Strong's 776) - in order of priority, it can mean whole earth, land/territory, or ground surface

  Gen. 1:1, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth."

  Gen. 1:11, "Then God said, 'Let the earth sprout vegetation, plants yielding seed, and fruit trees on the earth bearing fruit after their kind' . . . "

  Gen. 1:15, "'and let them be for lights in the expanse of the heavens to give light on the earth' . . ."

  Gen. 1:20, ". . . 'and let birds fly above the earth in the open expanse of the heavens.'"

  Gen. 1:24, "'Let the earth bring forth living creatures after their kind: cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth after their kind' . . ."

  Gen. 1:26, "'Let Us make man in Our image . . . let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.'"

  Gen. 1:28, "God blessed them; and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it . . .'"

  Gen. 1:29, "'Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed that is on the surface of all the earth, and every tree which has fruit yielding seed . . .'"

  Gen. 1:30, "'and to every beast of the earth and to every bird of the sky and to every thing that moves on the earth which has life, I have given every green plant . . .'"

• wə-hā-’ā-reṣ (Strong's 776) - same root word as "hā-’ā-reṣ"
  

  Gen. 1:2, "The earth was formless and void . . ."

• ’e-reṣ (Strong's 776) - same root word as "hā-’ā-reṣ"

  Gen. 1:10, "God called the dry land earth, and the gathering of the waters He called seas . . ."

  Gen. 1:24, "'Let the earth bring forth living creatures after their kind: cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth after their kind' . . ."

• bā-’ā-reṣ (Strong's 776) - same root word as "hā-’ā-reṣ"

  Gen. 1:22, ". . . 'Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.'"

  [(12/24/2015)
  
  Gen. 6:17, "'Behold, I, even I am bringing the flood of water upon the earth, to destroy all flesh in which is the breath of life, from under heaven; everything that is on the earth shall perish.'"
  
  
  Exodus 20:4, "You shall not make for yourself an idol, or any likeness of what is in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the water under the earth."

]

• hā-’ă-ḏā-māh (Strong's 127) - has the same origin as "adam"; in order of priority, it can mean tilled ground, property, earthen material, or ground surface
  

  Gen. 1:25, "God made . . . everything that creeps on the ground after its kind . . ."